IHIIIIIIHIIIIIIIIIHIIIIIHIIIIIIIIIIIIIIilllllllllllllllllllllll 


University  of  California. 

FROM    Til!.    MKKAKY   OF 

DR.    FRANCIS     LIEHKK. 

Professor  of  History  and  Law  in  Columbia  College,  Nctv  York, 


THI:  GIFT  OK 

MICHAEL    REESE, 

Of  Sax  Francisco. 
1873, 


HANDBOOK 


OF 


MEDIEVAL 

GEOGRAPHY  AND  HISTORY. 


BY 


WILHELM   PtiTZ, 

PRINCIPAL   TUTOR   AT   THE  GYMNASIUM   OF  DURE3T. 


TRANSLATED  FROM  THE  GERMAN, 

BY  THE 

. 

REV.  R.  B.  PAUL,  M.  A., 

VICAR  OF  ST.  AUGUSTINE'S,  BRISTOL,  AND  LATE  FELLOW 
OF  EXETER  COLLEGE,  OXFORD. 


NEW-YORK : 
D.  APPLETON  &  COMPANY,  200  BROADWAY. 

PHILADELPHIA : 
GEO.  S.  APPLETON,  164  CHESNUT-STREET. 

1850. 


Entered  according  to  Act  of  Congress,  in  the  year  1850,  by 
D.  APPLETON  &  CO., 

In  the  Clerk's  Office  of  the  District  Court  for  the  Southern  District  of 
New-York. 


PREFACE 

BY    THE    AMERICAN    EDITOR. 


THE  characteristics  of  this  volume  are  the  same  as  those 
of  the  first:  precision,  condensation,  and  luminous  ar- 
rangement. It  is  precisely  what  it  pretends  to  be — a 
manual,  a  sure  and  conscientious  guide  for  the  student 
through  the  crooks  and  tangles  of  mediaeval  history. 
Many  things  of  course  are  omitted ;  many  rather  indi- 
cated than  developed ; — but  all  the  great  principles  of 
this  extensive  period  are  carefully  laid  down,  and  the 
most  important  facts  skilfully  grouped  around  them. 
There  is  no  period  of  history  for  which  it  is  more  diffi- 
cult to  prepare  a  work  like  this,  and  none  for  which  it  is 
so  much  needed.  The  leading  facts  are  well  established, 
but  they  are  scattered  over  an  immense  space ;  the  prin- 
ciples are  ascertained,  but  their  development  was  slow, 
unequal,  and  interrupted.  There  is  a  general  breaking 
up  of  a  great  body,  and  a  parcelling  of  it  out  among 
small  tribes,  concerning  whom  we  have  only  a  few  gene- 
ral data,  and  are  left  to  analogy  and  conjecture  for  the 
details.  Then  come  successive  attempts  at  organization, 
each  more  or  less  independent,  and  all  very  imperfect. 
At  last,  modern  Europe  begins  slowly  to  emerge  from 
the  chaos,  but  still  under  forms  which  the  most  diligent 
historian  cannot  always  comprehend.  To  reduce  such 


IV  PREFACE. 

materials  to  a  clear  and  definite  form  is  a  task  of  no 
small  difficulty,  and  in  which  even  partial  success  de- 
serves great  praise.  It  is  not  too  much  to  say,  that  it  has 
never  been  so  well  done  within  a  compass  so  easily  mas- 
tered, as  in  the  little  volume  which  is  now  offered  to 
the  public. 

In  the  English  edition  there  were  no  references.  It 
would  have  been  easy  to  supply  this  want  by  a  long  list 
of  the  sources  of  mdiseval  history,  which  the  student  into 
whose  hands  this  volume  will  fall  would  never  have 
taken  the  trouble  to  read.  I  have  preferred  giving  a 
reference  for  each  section  to  works  which  are  accessible 
to  all,  and  where  more  copious  indications  will  be  found 
by  those  who  wish  to  push  their  inquiries  further.  For 
greater  convenience  it  is  printed  collectively  in  the  Ap- 
pendix. 

GEO.  W.  GREENE. 

Brown  University,  March  5,  1850. 


CONTENTS 


INTRODUCTION. 

I.  GERMANY  BEFORE  THE  MIGRATIONS.  PAGE 

§  1.  Geography  of  Germany  in  the  First  Century  after 

Christ 1 

Soil  and  products          » —        .          •*            •  1 

Tribes          .            .        "drta        ...  2 

2.  Religion,  manners,  and  customs,  in  the  First  Century 

of  the  Christian  era       '.'••..     :  '»       h-<<» 

Political  constitution,  war  .            .  3 

3.  History  of  the  Germans  to  the  period  of  the  migrations  4 
THE  GERMAN  TRIBES          w*  •-,     ;  ..>*,,    -.  ?            *  ^ 

The  Cimhri  and  Teutones  .            .        ,>  «"t          .  4 

Germany  in  the  time  of  Julius  Caesar  .            .  4 

Conquests  of  Drusus  and  Tiberius            .            .  6 

THE  TWO  FIRST  UNIONS  OF  GERMAN  TRIBES  .                 .  6 
THE  EMPIRE  OF  THE  MARCOMANNI  AND  CONFEDERACY  OF 

THE  CHERUSCI  .  .  .  .         .   ,  ,          .5 

War  between  the  two  confederacies     .            .  5 
The  Batavian  war  of  liberation      .            .            .6 

The  Marcomannic  War             ...  66 
More  extensive  confederacies  in  the  West  and 

East       H'ml     .          . ..-    'Isw..  •'.',.          •  7 

II.  THE  MIGRATIONS. 

§  4.  Destruction  of  the  Gothic  empire  by  the  Huns          .  8 

5.  General  immigration  of  the  Barbarians  into  the  coun- 

tries of  the  West          .               .f         ,,-;.;  ^         .               .  9 

6.  Dissolution  of  the  Hunnish  empire          ;  •;, . ;       .  11 

7.  Dissolution  of  the  Western  Roman  empire    ..i         .  12 

THE   MIDDLE   AGES. 

FIRST  PERIOD — FROM  THE  DISSOLUTION  OF  THE  WESTERN  EMPIRE 
TO  THE  ACCESSION  OF  THE  CARLOVINGIANS  AND  AfiBASIDES. 

A.  THE  WEST. 

$  8.  Empires  in  Italy  .  .  .  .  .13 

I.  The  Italian  empire  established  by  German 

mercenaries  under  Odoacer         .            .  13 

II.  Empire  of  the  Ostrogoths  in  Italy           .  13 

III.  Byzantine  dominion  in  Italy              .            .  14 

IV.  Empire  of  the  Langobardi            .            .  16 


VI  CONTENTS. 

PAGE 

$  9.  Empire  of  the  Vandals  in  Africa          .           .  .16 

Extent  of  the  empire    ....  16 

History        .            .            .            .            .  .16 

10.  Empire  of  the  Suevi  in  Spam          ...  17 

11.  Empire  of  the  Visigoths           .            .           .  .17 

Extent  of  the  empire    ....  17 

History 17 

12.  Empire  of  the  Burgundians  in  Gaul           .            .  19 
13    Empire  of  the  Franks  under  the  Merovingians           .  19 

The  Frankish  empire  under  the  administration  of 

the  majores  domus    ....  21 

14.  Religion,  manners,  and  customs  of  the  West,  particu- 
larly of  the  Frankish  empire  .  .  .22 

1.  Religion        .....  22 

a.  The  introduction  of  Christianity       .  .      22 

b.  The  monastic  life    .            .            .            .  22 

c.  Relation  of  the  Church  to  the  State  .      24 

2.  Political  constitution            ...  24 

a.  Origin  and  development  of  the  German  States      24 

b.  The  feudal  system      .  .  .  .25 

c.  Legislation  ....  26 

3.  Manners  and  customs    .  .  .  .27 

4.  Scientific  knowledge            ...  28 
6.  Art 28 

B.  THE  EAST. 

§  15.  The  Eastern  Roman  (or  Byzantine)  empire  .            .  28 

History  .                                    ...  29 
I.  Period  of  the  rise  of  the  empire,  from  the  year 

395  to  the  death  of  Justinian  in  566    .            .  29 
II.  Period  of  the  decline  of  the  empire,  from  565  to  the 

accession  of  the  Macedonian  emperor  in  867  81 
Political  constitution,  arts,  and  sciences. 

1.  The  constitution  .  .  .  .33 

2.  Language  and  literature      ...  33 

3.  Art 34 

4.  Commerce  and  manufactures           .           .  34 

5.  Manners  .  .  .  .  .  .86 

16.  The  Arabians — 

Geography  of  Arabia    ....  86 

History  of  the  Arabians, 

1.  From  Mohammed  to  the  dynasty  of  the  Om- 

maijades      .  .  .  .  .36 

2.  The  Ommayad  caliphs      ...  87 
Religion,  arts,  and  sciences. 

1.  Creed  of  the  Arabians            .            .  .39 

2.  Political  constitution 

3.  Arts  and  sciences       .            .            .  .40 

4.  Trade  and  manufactures  ...  40 

17.  The  modern  Persian  empire — 

Boundaries     ......      41 

History     ......  41 


CONTENTS.  Vll 

PAGE 

C.  THE  NORTH-EAST  OF  EUROPE. 

§  18.  The  Sclavonians  .  42 

19.  Other  nations  in  the  East  of  Europe — 

1.  The  Avares   .....  43 

2.  The  Bulgarians  .  .  .  .  .43 

3.  The  Chazares  ....  44 

SECOND  PERIOD — FROM  THE  ACCESSION  OF  THE  CARLOVINGIANS 
AND  ABBASIDES  TO  THE  FIRST  CRUSADE. 

A.  THE  WEST. 

§  20.  The  Prankish  empire  under  the  Carlovingians  .      44 

1.  Pepin  the  Short       ....  44 

2.  Charlemagne       .  .  .  .  .45 
The  wars  of  Charlemagne           .            .            .  46 

a.  Conquest  of  Lombardy      .  .  .  .45 

b.  Wars  with  the  Saxons  ...  45 

3.  War  in  Spain      .  .  .  .  .46 

4.  War  with  the  Avares  ...  47 

5.  War  against  the  Danes  and  Wilzes      .  .      47 
Restoration  of  the  Western  Roman  empire        .  47 
Charlemagne's  administration. 

a.  Ecclesiastical  and  educational  establishments    .      48 

b.  Legislation        .  .  .  •»  .  49 

c.  The  Constitution    .            .            .            .  .49 
Lewis  the  Pious    .....  51 
Pedigree  of  the  Prankish  kings        .            .  .52 
Successors  of  Lewis  the  Pious    ...           63 

Lewis  the  German .  .  .  .53 

Charles  the  Bald  ....  53 

Lothar         .  .  .  .  .  .53 

Lewis  II.  .....  54 

Portions  of  the  Prankish  empire       .  .  .64 

1.  The  Western  empire  .  .  .  64 

2.  Germany             .            .            .            .  .54 
3  and  4.  Burgundy  cis  and  transjuranic          .  54 
5.  Italy        .            .                       .            .  .54 
Domestic  History          ....           54 

21.  The  East  Prankish  empire  under  the  two  last  Carlo- 

vingians— 

1.  Arnulf     .  .  .  .  .  .56 

2.  Lewis  the  Child        ....  56 

22.  Empire  of  the  East  Franks  under  Conrad  I.  of  Fran- 

conia. 

23.  The  German  empire  under  Kings  of  the  house  of 

Saxony — 

1.  Henry  I.  (the  Fowler)   .  .  .  .57 

2.  Otho  I.  (the  Great)  ...  58 

3.  Otho  II. 60 

4.  Otho  III 60 

5.  Henry  II.  (the  Saint)    ...  60 


V  CONTENTS. 

PAGE 

§  24.  The  German  empire  under  the  Franconian  emperors — 

1.  Conrad  II 61 

2.  Henry  III.    r, .     ,  ;. .         .  .       ' '  i  61 

3.  Henry  IV.  .    '        .  .  .  .63 
War  with  the  Saxons    ....  63 

Contests  between  Gregory  VII.  and  the  princes 
of  Germany  .  .  .  .  .64 

Rebellion  of  the  sons  of  Henry  IV.  against  their 
father 65 

4.  Henry  V. 66 

Changes  in  the  Constitution  during  the  Saxon  and 

Franconian  period — 

The  Monarchy         .  .  ;;  .  .67 

The  Dukes         .  .  .        '    .  ;         .  67 

25.  Italy— 

A.  The  kingdom  of  Italy  .            .            .  .68 

B.  Venice          .....  69 

C.  Papal  Italy,  or  States  of  the  Church  .  .      69 

D.  Lower  Italy              .           ;J          .           .  70 

E.  The  Islands        .            .           *  '  *       .  .71 

26.  France  under  the  last  Carlovingians — 

1.  Otho  .                       .  71 

2.  Charles  III.        .            .            .  .            .71 

3.  Robert           .        •'•';••     -V:"J  .            .            71 

4.  Rudolph             .           .           .  '        .           .72 

5.  Lewis  IV.  (the  Stranger)    ...  72 

6.  Lothar    .            .            .           .  W<*        .      72 

7.  Lewis  V.  (Faineant)             .  i            .            72 

27.  France  under  the  four  first  Capets — 

1.  Hugh  Capet       .            .        'V*         4  .      73 

2.  Robert           .            .        ***.  •'      •;  •••'  .            73 

3.  Henry     .           .           .           .           *  .73 

4.  Philip  I.        .            .                       *  .           73 

28.  England  under  the  "West  Saxon  Kings — 

Alfred  the  Great 73 

29.  Supremacy  of  the  Danes  in  England — 

Canute 74 

Harold 75 

Hardicanute       .....  76 

30.  Restoration  and  extinction  of  the  Anglo-Saxon  dy- 

nasty— 

Edward  III.  (the  Confessor)         .           .  .      76 

Harold  II 75 

81.  Scotland           .           .           .   ,        .           .  .75 

32.  Ireland        .         *  .          *.            .          -.           .  76 

33.  Spain     .           .  . .       ?           .           .           .  .76 

B.  THE  EAST. 

§34.  The  Byzantine  empire  under  the  Macedonian  emperors     78 
35.  The  Arabians  under  the  Abbasides   .  .  .78 

C.  THE  NORTH-EAST  OF  EUROPE. 

§  36.  Scandinavia  ....  80 

1.  Norway  and  Iceland      ii         .  .  .80 


CONTENTS.  IX 

PAGE 

2.  Sweden  .:>-,.           .           .  .      80 

3.  Denmark       .            ...          .,           .            .  80 
§  37.  Russia  .......      81 

38.  Poland         .          ,  -            .            .            .            .  82 

39.  Hungary           .            .            .            .            .  .82 

40.  Religion,  Arts,  Sciences,  &c.,  during  the  Second 

Period— 

The  Church            .            .            .           .  .83 

Arts  and  Sciences         ....  84 

Trade  and  manufacturing  industry           .  .86 

THIRD  PERIOD — AGE  OF  THE  CRUSADES. 

41.  The  Crusades— 

The  first  crusade     .           .           .           .  .87 

The  second  crusade       .         „  r           .            .  89 

The  third  crusade  .            .           .           .  .89 

The  (so-named)  fourth  crusade           .           .  90 

The  crusade  of  Frederick  II.         .            .  .91 

The  sixth  crusade         ....  92 

The  seventh  crusade           .            .            .  .92 
Results  of  the  crusades. 

A.  Political  consequences — 

1.  To  the  hierarchy  ....  92 

2.  To  the  sovereigns  of  Europe  .           .  .93 

3.  To  the  nobility      .            .           ..           .  93 

4.  To  the  burgher  order             .            .  .94 

5.  To  the  peasant  order        ...  95 

B.  Consequences  to  Trade  and  Manufactures — 

1.  To  maritime  enterprise           .           .  .95 

2.  To  the  overland  trade       ...  95 

3.  To  manufacturing  industry    .            .  .95 

C.  To  the  sciences        ....  96 

A.  THE  WEST. 

$  42.  The  German  empire  under  Lothar  the  Saxon — 

Pedigree  of  the  Guelphs  and  Hohenstaufen  .      97 

43.  The  German  empire  under  the  Hohenstaufen — 

I.Conrad  III.   .        &£^-       .            .            .  98 

2.  Frederick  I.  (Barbarpssa)         .            .  .98 

First  Italian  campaign       .          •. .            .  99 

Second  Italian  campaign        .           .  .99 

Third  visit  to  Italy             ...  100 

Fourth  Italian  campaign                       .  .    100 

Fifth  Italian  campaign       ...  100 

Sixth  visit  to  Italy      .            .            .  .101 

3.  Henry  VI 101 

4.  Philip  of  Swabia  >  ino 
OthoIV.                 (      '           '            '  '    1U^ 

5.  Frederick  II 103 

6.  Conrad  IV 104 

44.  The  interregnum  in  Germany        .           .           .  106 


Xll  CONTENTS. 

PAGE 

C.  In  Lower  Italy — 

1.  Naples 138 

2.  Sicily 138 

§62.  France— 

A.  Under  the  last  Capets — 

10.  Philip  III.       .            .                       .  .138 

11.  Philip  IV.  (le  Bel)            ...  138 
Louis  X.,  Philip  V.,  and  Charles  IY.  .    139 

A.  Under  Kings  of  the  house  of  Valois          .          139 

1.  Philip  VI 140 

2.  John  (the  Good)  ....          140 

3.  Charles  V.  (the  Wise)  .  .  .140 

4.  Charles  VI.            ..                        .          141 
6.  Charles  VII 141 

6.  Louis  XL  '  ;  .142 

7.  Charles  VIII.  V         .  '         .  .143 

63.  England  and  Scotland. 

A.  Kings  of  the  house  of  Plantagenet — 

5.  Edward  I.  ....  143 

6.  Edward  II 144 

7.  Edward  III 144 

8.  Richard  II 144 

B.  Three  Kings  of  the  house  of  Lancaster — 

1.  Henry  IV.  ....          145 

2.  Henry  V 146 

Pedigree  of  the  houses  of  Lancaster  and  York 

3.  Henry  VI.  ....          147 

C.  Three  Kings  of  the  house  of  York— 

1.  Edward  IV 147 

2.  Edward  V.  ,  .  .  147 

3.  Richard  III.    .  .    ,    ,  ;  ;       .  .  148 

64.  The  Pyrenaean  Peninsula — 

The  Christian  kingdoms       '  V          •  •          148 

B.  THE  EAST. 

§  65.  The  Byzantine  empire  under  the  Palseologi  .  .    148 

66.  The  Osmans            .            .                       .  .          149 

67.  The  Mongols    .                       .                       .  .149 

C.  THE  NORTH-EAST  OF  EUROPE — 

§  68.  Scandinavia  .....          160 

69.  Russia  .  .       ,   v»  ,        .  .  .  .160 

70.  Poland         .  .          „-.*.       ,  .  .         151 

1.  Under  the  Piasts  .  .  .  .151 

2.  Under  the  descendants  of  Jagello   .  .          151 

71.  Prussia  under  the  Teutonic  order       .  .  .152 

72.  Hungary     ......          162 

73.  Religion,  Arts,  Sciences,  &c.,  during  the  Fourth 

Period— 

1.  The  Church  '     .            .            .            .    *  .    163 

2.  Political  Constitution           ...  164 

3.  The  Sciences      .            .           .           .  .156 

4.  Art 166 

5.  Trade,  Navigation,  and  Manufactures  .  .    167 


HANDBOOK 

OF 

GEOGEAPHY  AND  HISTOEY 


PART  II.— THE  MIDDLE  AGES. 


INTRODUCTION. 

1.  GERMANY  BEFORE  THE  MIGRATIONS. 

§  1.  Geography  of  Germany  in  the  First  Century  after 
Christ. 

Boundaries.     The  Roman  provinces  on  the  left  bank  1 
of  the  Rhine,  with  some  important  stations  on  the  right  A 
bank,  were  protected  partly  by  fortresses,  partly  by  lines 
of  pallisades  and  a  rampart  (vallum  Rornanum)  which  ex- 
tended from  Ratisbon  on  the  Danube  (across  the  Mayn 
and  Lahn)  to  Neuwied  on  the  Rhine.     All  the  territory 
southward  and  westward  of  this  frontier  belonged  to  the 
Roman  empire,  and  was  divided  into  G  e  r  m  a  n  i  a  Superior 
or  Prima  (from  Basle  to  Mainz),  and  Germania  Inferior 
or  Secunda  (from  Mainz  to  the  country  of  the  Batavi). 
The  rest  of  Germany  (between  the  Rhine,  Danube,  Elbe,  B 
and    North   Sea)  was  occupied    by  independent  native 
tribes. 

Soil  and  Products.  According  to  the  Roman  writers,  2 
Csesar  and  Tacitus,  the  soil  of  Germany  in  their  time  was 
little  better  than  a  succession  of  steppes,  morasses,  and 
wild  tracts  of  woodland  ;  one  of  which,  called  the  Hercy- 
nian  forest,  was  reported  to  be  sixty  days'  journey  in  ex- 
tent. Hence  the  coldness  of  the  climate,  and  the  numerous 
animals,  which  now  exist  only  in  northern  latitudes,  such 
1 


2  GERMANY.  [3 — 5.    §  1. 

(2)  as  rein-deer,  elks,  uruses,  and  bears.     Their  horses  were 
A  neither  handsome  nor  swift ;  the  neat  cattle  numerous,  but 
small.     Fruit  trees  and  every  description  of  metal,  except 
iron,  were  unknown.     The  only  sorts  of  grain  cultivated 
were  oats  and  barley. 
Tribes. 

3  a)  The  Western  Germans.     1 .  The  Catti  (Chassians  or 
B  Hessians)  in  the  Hercynian  forest.      2.  The  Frisii  on 

the  north-western  coast,  from  the  mouths  of  the  Rhine 
to  the  Ems.  Smaller  tribes :  the  Usipetes  and  Tencteri 
on  the  Lower  Rhine,  the  Sigambri  [or  Sicambri]  on  the 
Sieg. 

4  b)  The  Northern  Germans.     1.  The  Chauci  from  the 
Ems  to  the  Elbe  ;  and  southward  of  these,  2.  The  Che- 
rusci,  between  the  Weser  and  the  Elbe. 

5  c)  The  Suevi  (or  Hermiones)  a  general  name  given  by 
o  Tacitus  to  all  the  nations  in  the  interior  of  Germany.     Of 

these  tribes  three  are  especially  mentioned  by  the  historian 
as  forming  a  confederacy,  political  and  religious  ;  viz.  1. 
The  Senones,  between  the  Elbe,  the  Oder,  and  the  Spree, 
with  the  Langobardi,  or  Longobardi,  on  the  left  bank  of 
the  Elbe.  2.  A  confederacy  of  seven  Suevic  tribes  between 
the  Lower  Elbe  and  the  Baltic,  who  worshipped  the  god- 
dess Hertha,  in  a  sacred  grove  on  an  island  of  the  ocean 
D  (Femern  or  Riigen  ?).  3.  The  Lygii,  on  the  Upper  Oder. 
Besides  these,  there  belonged  to  the  Suevic  stock  :  1 .  In 
the  north-east,  the  Gothones,  between  the  Warthe  and  the 
Vistula ;  and  the  ^Estiaei  (Esthonians),  at  the  mouth  of  the 
Vistula,  on  the  amber  coast.  2.  In  the  south,  the  Her- 
munduri  on  the  Upper  Danube,  the  Marcomanni  in  Bo- 
hemia, the  Quadi  in  Moravia.  The  language  of  these 
various  tribes,  no  less  than  the  peculiarities  of  their  per- 
sonal appearance,  (the  bold  blue  eye,  golden  hair,  lofty 
stature,  and  fair  complexion,)  are  a  sufficient  indication 
of  their  common  descent  from  a  distinct  and  unmixed 
race. 


6 9.    §2.]  GERMANY.  3 

§  2.  Religion,  Manners,  and  Customs  in  the  First  Century 
of  the  Christian  JEra. 

Religion.     The  Supreme  Being  was  worshipped  by  6 
the  Germans  under  the   names  of  Wodan  (=  Odin)  and  A 
Thor  (the  god  of  thunder).    Sacrifices  were  offered  to  these 
deities  in  groves  and  forests,  and  auguries  drawn  from  the 
neighing  and  snorting  of  the  white  horses  which  were  kept 
in  honour  of  them.     They  believed  in  a  future  state  of 
martial  existence  in  Walhalla  [Valhalla].     When  a  war- 
rior died,  his  arms,  and  in  the  case  of  chieftains,  his  horse, 
were  burnt  at  the  grave. 

Political  Constitution.  There  was  a  distinction  7 
between  freemen  and  serfs.  Every  member  of  the  former  B 
class  enjoyed  the  privilege  of  being  present  in  arms  and 
taking  part  in  the  great  national  councils,  which  assembled 
regularly  on  the  new  and  full  moons,  under  the  presidence 
of  the  elders  or  priests,  for  the  purpose  of  deciding  all  im- 
portant state  questions,  electing  officers,  and  trying  crimi- 
nals. The  assent  of  the  assembly  was  expressed  by  a 
clattering  of  spears,  and  their  disapprobation  by  a  murmur. 
In  these  assemblies  young  men  were  solemnly  declared 
capable  of  bearing  arms.  Their  princes  were  chosen  out  of 
the  most  distinguished  families,  and  their  dukes  or  leaders 
from  among  the  bravest  warriors.  The  power  of  both 
these  officers  was  limited. 

War.  Their  arms  consisted  of  a  short  spear,  calledframe  8 
[framed],  and  a  shield  of  painted  wood.     Their  order  of  c 
battle  was  in  the  form  of  a  wedge,  surrounded  on  three  sides 
with  a  barricade  of  carriages,  which  sheltered  the  wives  and 
children  of  the  combatants.    Before  and  during  the  engage- 
ment a  battle-hymn  was  chanted  by  the  bards.     If  the  first 
attack  was  unsuccessful,  they  retired  to  their  barricades, 
and  renewed  the  fight,  which  was  often  won  through  the 
assistance  afforded  them  by  their  wives  and  children. 

Manners  and  customs.     The  ancient  Germans  had  9 
no  towns,  nor  even  connected  villages ;  but  lived  in  de-  D 
tached  wooden  huts,  thatched  with  straw,  which  were  gene- 
rally erected  near  the  centre  of  their  common  field.     A 
number  of  these  huts  formed  a  mark,  several  marks  a  tent, 
and  several  zents  a  gau.     Their  ordinary  dress  in  summer 
was  a  tunic,  of  wool  for  the  men,  and  linen  for  the  women ; 


4  GERMANY.  [10.    §3. 

(9)  and  in  winter,  a  coat  of  skins.  Next  to  war,  the  chief 
A  business  of  their  lives  was  the  chase ;  the  cultivation  of  the 
soil,  as  well  as  all  other  manual  labor,  being  left  to  their 
wives,  children,  and  serfs.  The  Germans  were  fond  of 
games  of  hazard,  and  passed  a  considerable  portion  of  their 
time  in  banquets  and  drinking  matches ;  during  which  the 
sword  or  war-dance  was  performed  for  the  amusement  of 
the  company,  by  naked  youths,  and  the  most  important 
affairs  were  frequently  discussed.  Chastity,  a  religious 
observance  of  their  conjugal  obligations,  and  unbounded 
hospitality,  were  the  distinguishing  virtues  of  this  rude 
B  people.  Atonement  might  be  made  for  all  crimes,  including 
even  murder  itself,  by  the  payment  of  a  fine,  consisting  of 
a  certain  number  of  heads  of  cattle. 

§  3.  History  of  the  Germans  to  the  Period  of  the  Migrations. 

A.  The  German  tribes. 

10  It  seems  probable  that  the  coasts  of  the  Baltic  were 
known  from  the  remotest  antiquity  to  Phoenician  and  Greek 
traders  in  amber  ;  but  the  first  distinct  accounts  which  we 
have  of  the  Germans  commence  with  the  invasion  of  the 
Roman  territory  by  separate  tribes.  Half  German  clans, 
for  instance,  from  the  Alps,  joined  the  Gauls  in  their  expe- 
dition against  Rome  ;  and  the  Bastarnae  formed  an  alliance 

c  with  Perseus.  But  the  most  fearful  invasion  was  that  of  the 
Cimbri  and  Teutdnes  (B.C.  1 1 3),  who  seem  to  have  advanced 
upon  Noricum  from  two  distinct  points.  For  their  war 
with  the  Romans,  see  part  i.  3,  §  79.  The  next  migration 
was  that  of  the  Marcomanni,  under  one  of  their  princes 
named  Ariovistus,  who  marched  to  the  assistance  of  the 
Sequani  against  their  enemies,  the  Edui  (B.C.  72)  ;  and 
after  defeating  them,  continued  to  pour  fresh  troops  into 
Gaul,  until  he  was  finally  overthrown  by  Caesar  at  Vesontio 
(Besancon)  (58),  and  compelled  to  recross  the  Rhine. 

D  After  an  obstinate  struggle,  the  Belgic  Germans  (Nervii, 
Aduatici,  and  Eburones)  were  subdued  by  Caesar,  who 
crossed  the  Rhine  twice  without  any  result,  extinguished 
an  insurrection  of  the  Belgee  under  Ambiorix,  prince  of 
the  Eburones,  took  Germans  into  his  pay,  and  with  their 
assistance  quelled  an  insurrection  of  the  Gauls  under 
Vercingetorix,  completed  the  subjugation  of  Gaul,  and 
gained  the  decisive  victory  of  Pharsalus.  Augustus 


11.    §3.]  GERMANY.  5 

formed  a  body-guard  of  Germans.     His  step-sons,  Drusus  (10) 
and  Tiberius,  conquered  all  the  nations  between  the  Alps  A 
and  the    Danube.      In  order  to  subdue,  also,  the  Low- 
German  tribes,  who  were    perpetually  invading  Roman 
Gaul,  Drusus  took  whole  German  clans  into  his  pay,  built 
a  fleet  on  the  Rhine,  which  he  united  with  the  Yssel  by 
means  of  the  fossa  Drusi,  undertook  four  expeditions  into 
Germany  (B.C.  12 — 9),  erected  fortresses  for  the  defence 
of  the  Roman  territory  (50  ?  on  the  Rhine),  and  advanced 
as  far  as  the  Elbe. 

B.  The  two  first  unions  of  German  tribes. —  B 
TheempireoftheMarcomanniandconfederacy 
of  the  Cherusci. 

1.   War   of  these  two   confederacies   against 
Rome. 

After  the  death  of  his  brother,  Tiberius  continued  the  11 
war  in  Germany,  and  threatened  Mar  bod,  the  founder  of 
the  Marcomannic  empire,  which  comprised  all  the  S  u  e  v  i  c 
tribes  between  the  Elbe  and  Danube  (the  Marcomanni, 
Hermunduri,  Langobardi,  and  Senones) ;  but  in  conse- 
quence of  the  simultaneous  revolt  of  Pannonia  and  Dalma- 
tia,  he  was  compelled  to  grant  peace  on  favorable  terms. 
Although  the  Low-German  tribes  had  been  rather  gained  c 
over  by  promises  and  alliances  than  actually  overcome,  the 
Romans  nevertheless  considered  themselves  masters  of  all 
the  country  between  the  Rhine  and  the  Elbe.  The  unjust 
severity  of  their  governor,  L.  Quinctilius  Varus,  in  com- 
pelling the  Germans  to  adopt  the  Roman  language,  laws, 
and  system  of  taxation,  occasioned  a  confederation  of 
the  Low-German  tribes  (Cherusci,  Bructeri,  and  Marsi), 
under  the  command  of  Herman  (son  of  a  prince  of  the 
Cherusci  named  Siegmar),  who  had  been  educated  at  Rome. 
In  spite  of  the  warning  given  him  by  the  traitor  Segestus  D 
(afterwards  Herman's  father-in-law),  Varus,  crediting  the 
intelligence  of  a  revolt  on  the  Ems,  suffered  himself  to  be 
enticed  into  the  Teutoburgian  forest,  where  he  was 
attacked  by  Herman  [Arminius],  and  after  losing  three 
Roman  legions,  threw  himself  on  his  own  sword  (A.D.  9). 
On  receiving  intelligence  of  this  disaster,  Augustus  dis- 
banded his  German  body-guard,  and  compelled  all  the 
German  residents  to  quit  Rome.  In  the  years  14 — 16, 
three  campaigns  in  Germany,  (principally  against  the  Che- 


6  GERMANY.  [12—14.    §3. 

(11)  rusci,  Bructeri,  Marsi,  and  Catti,)  were  undertaken  by 
A  Germanicus,  the  son  of  Drusus,  who  buried  the  bones  of 
those  who  had  fallen  in  the  Teutoburgian  forest,  and  de- 
feated Herman  at  Idistaviss  [Idistavisus  Campus],  on  the 
Weser.  On  the  homeward  voyage  a  part  of  his  fleet  was 
wrecked  in  .a  gale  of  wind,  and  Germanicus  himself  was 
recalled  by  Tiberius,  before  he  had  succeeded  in  re-esta- 
blishing the  Roman  supremacy  in  Germany. 

2.  War  between  the  two  confederacies. 

12  The  bravest  of  the  Suevic  tribes,  the  Langobardi  and 
B  Senones,  renounced  their  allegiance  to  Marbod,  and  joined 

the  Cheruscan  league  ;  whilst,  on  the  other  hand,  Hinkmar, 
the  uncle  of  Herman,  who  envied  his  nephew's  reputation, 
went  over  to  the  side  of  Marbod.  The  result  of  these 
secessions  was  a  double  intestine  war.  1.  Between  the 
chiefs  of  the  Cherusci.  2,  Between  the  Cheruscan  con- 
federacy and  the  Marcomannic  empire  (A.D.  19).  After 
sustaining  a  defeat,  Marbod  was  expelled  from  his  king- 
dom by  a  Gothonian  named  Catwald ;  and  Herman,  who 
was  suspected  of  aiming  at  absolute  power,  was  assassinated 
by  his  own  relations  (A.D.  22  ?). 

3.  The  Batavian  war  of  liberation  (69). 

13  After  the  dissolution  of  these  two    confederacies,  the 
c  domestic  feuds  of  the  Germans  were  fostered  by  the  Ro- 
mans so  effectually  as  to  prevent,  for  a  century  and  a  half, 
the  formation  of  any  fresh  leagues.    An  attempt,  it  is  true, 
was  made  by  the  Batavi  (exasperated  by  Cl.  Civilis)  to  unite 
several  German  tribes  (Bructeri,  Tencteri,  Catti,  Usipetes, 
Mattiaci,  and,  at  a  later  period,  the  Tried,  Lingones,  and 
Ubii)  for  a  war  of  liberation ;  but  after  sustaining  several 
defeats,  most  of  the  clans  were  induced,  either  by  bribery 
or  by  the  fair  promises  of  the  Romans,  to  withdraw  from 
the  confederacy. 

j  4.  The  Marcomannic  war,   166 — 180. 

14  Whilst  the  Romans  were  occupied  with  a  war  against 
D  the    Parthians,  their  provinces  on  the  southern    Danube 

were  invaded  by  several  clans,  among  whom  we  hear,  for 
the  first  time,  of  the  Vandals  and  Alans.  The  emperor 
Marcus  Aurelius,  after  undertaking  nine  campaigns  against 
these  barbarians,  died  at  Vienna,  in  the  midst  of  his  pre- 
parations for  the  tenth.  His  son  Commodus,  who  wished 
to  remain  at  Ron>e,  granted  peace  to  the.  Marcomanni, 


15,   16.    §3.]  GERMANY.  7 

Quadi,  &c.,  on  condition  of  their  furnishing  a  yearly  con-  (14) 
tingent.  A 

C.  More    extensive   confederacies   in   the  W. 
and  E. 

a.  In  Western  Germany.     1.  The  Alemanni,  a  general  15 
name  for  the  union  (commenced  by  the  Hermunduri)  of 
the  hitherto  distinct  Suevic  tribes  in  the  south-west,  from 
the  Mayn  to  the  Alps.     2.  The  Franks,  an  appellation  B 
indicating  a  similar  union  of  Low-German  clans,  most  of 
which  had  belonged  to  the  Cheruscan  league,  but  exclud- 
ing the  Cheruscans  themselves.     3.  The  Saxons,  whose 
name  and  confederation  extended    southwards,  from  the 
Cimbrian  Peninsula,  their  original  settlement,  to  the  fron- 
tiers of  the  Cheruscan  territory. 

b.  In  Eastern  Germany  were  also  three  confederacies  : 
the  Vandal,  Gothic,  and  Alanic. 

These  confederacies,  the  origin  of  which  might  be  traced  16 
partly  to  the  combination  of  different  tribes  against  the  c 
Romans,  and  partly  to  the  extension  of  the  feudal  system, 
availed  themselves  of  the  confusion  occasioned  throughout 
the  Roman  empire,  by  the  frequent  change  of  rulers,  to  raise 
the  standard  of  revolt  on  their  respective  frontiers.  (About 
250.)  Whilst  the  Rhenish  border  was  distracted  by  the 
invasions  of  the  Alemanni  and  Franks,  the  Goths  appeared 
in  Illyria  and  Thrace,  and,  in  conjunction  with  the  Heruli, 
carried  on  piratical  warfare  against  the  coasts  and  islands 
of  the  Archipelago,  until  the  restoration  of  the  ancient 
boundaries  of  the  Roman  empire  by  Aurelian,  and  the  re- 
establishment  by  Probus,  after  many  struggles,  of  the  fron- 
tier wall  between  the  Rhine  and  Danube.  A  great  number 
of  Germans  were,  at  the  same  time,  transplanted  into  the  D 
Roman  provinces.  (Return  to  Germany  of  the  Franks, 
who  had  been  removed  to  the  shores  of  the  Pontus  Euxi- 
nus.)  After  the  death  of  Probus  the  frontier  wall  disap- 
peared ;  the  Alemanni  became  masters  of  the  Upper 
Rhine,  and  extended  their  conquests  into  Viridelicia  and 
Rhoeti,  whilst  the  Franks  took  possession  of  the'Batavian 
islands,  and  forced  their  way  through  Belgium  into  Gaul. 
These  encroachments  were  met,  on  the  part  of  the  Romans, 
by  the  establishment  of  additional  settlements  of  German 
auxiliaries  in  their  frontier  provinces.  At  the  head  of 
these  mercenaries  Caesar  Julianus  defeated,  near  Strasburg, 


8  GERMANY.  [17 19.    §4. 

(16)  a  body  of  Alemanni  who  had  invaded  Gaul,  and  five  times 
A  pursued  the  Germans  across  the  frontier  into  their  own 
territory.  Notwithstanding  this  check,  the  Alemanni  soon 
afterwards  recrossed  the  Rhine  and  Danube,  and  were  again 
expelled  from  Gaul  by  Valentinian  I. ;  a  portion  of  those 
who  had  crossed  the  Danube  being  permitted  to  hold  fiefs 
on  the  banks  of  the  Po. 


II.  THE  MIGRATIONS. 
§  4.  Destruction  of  the  Gothic  Empire  by  the,  Huns. 

17  The  two  branches  of  the  Gothic  empire  had  extended  in 
B  the  fourth  century  ever  the  whole  of  north-eastern  Europe; 

the  Western  Gothic  [or  that  of  the  Visigoths]  occupying 
all  the  territory  between  the  Lower  Danube  and  the  Dnies- 
ter (including  what  is  now  Moldavia,  Wallachia,  and  Po- 
dolia),  and  the  Eastern  Gothic  [that  of  the  Ostrogoths] 
extending  from  the  Baltic  to  the  Black  Sea.  The  former 
of  these  empires  was  governed  by  an  aged  monarch  named 
Hermanric,  the  latter  by  Athanaric. 

18  The  Goths  were  the  first  German  tribe  who  embraced 
c  Christianity,  according  to  the  teaching  of  the  heresiarch 

Arius.  At  the  council  of  Nicsea,  in  325,  there  appeared  a 
Gothic  bishop,  Theophilus,  whose  successor,  Ulphilas,  trans- 
lated the  four  Gospels  into  the  Gothic  dialect. 

19  The  Huns,  who  originally  inhabited  that  part  of  eastern 
Asia  which  lies  northwards  of  China,  had  rendered  them- 
selves formidable  to  the  Chinese  empire  long  before  their 
appearance  in  Europe ;  and  in  the  third  century  before 
Christ,  the  great  wall  of  China  had  been  erected  as  a  bar- 

D  rier  against  them.  At  a  later  period  the  Hunnish  empire 
was  divided  into  two  kingdoms,  the  northern  of  which  was 
overthrown  by  a  Tartaric  clan,  the  Sienpi.  The  most 
warlike  of  their  tribes,  however,  moved  westwards,  and, 
between  the  Volga  and  the  Don,  encountered  the  Alani 
(about  375),  a  portion  of  whom  retreated  before  them, 
whilst  the  remainder  surrendered,  and  were  incorporated 
into  their  army.  Reinforced  by  these  new  auxiliaries,  the 
Huns  assailed  both  the  kingdoms  of  the  Goths,  who  be- 
sought the  emperor  Valens  to  grant  them  lands  on  the  right 


20 22.    §5.]  GERMANY.  9 

bank  of  the  Danube.  Only  a  portion  of  the  West  Goths,  (19) 
[Visigoths]  the  Thervingians,  were  permitted  to  settle  in  A 
Moasia.  These  were  soon  goaded  into  revolt  by  the  severity 
of  the  Roman  governors ;  and  calling  in  the  Huns  and  Alani 
as  auxiliaries,  they  crossed  the  Hsemus  into  Thrace,  attacked 
Valens  (378)  near  Adrianople,  and  compelled  him  to  take 
refuge  in  a  hut,  where  he  was  accidentally  burnt  to  death. 
His  successor,  Theodosius,  beat  back  the  Goths,  who  were 
advancing  on  Constantinople,  and  concluded  a  peace,  by  the 
terms  of  which,  the  West  Goths  were  permitted  to  settle  in 
Moesia  and  Dacia,  and  their  allies,  the  Eastern  Goths  [Os- 
trogoths], in  Asia  Minor,  on  condition  of  their  furnishing  a 
contingent  of  mercenary  troops,  under  their  own  com- 
manders. The  Eastern  emperor,  Arcadius,  having  neg-  B 
lected  to  pay  the  stipulated  wages  to  these  auxiliaries,  the 
West  Goths  chose  Alaric  to  be  their  king,  and  invaded 
Greece,  which  they  were  compelled  to  evacuate  on  the 
approach  of  Stilico,  who  advanced  with  a  fleet  to  the  relief 
of  Peloponnesus.  Alaric  was  invested  with  the  prefec- 
ture of  the  East-Roman  province  of  Illyricum. 

§  5.  General  Immigration  of  the  Barbarians  into  the  Coun- 
tries of  the  West. 

From  Illyria,  Alaric,  at  the  head  of  the  Visigoths,  20 
entered  Italy  in  the  year  403,  but  was  twice  defeated  by  c 
Stilico,  at  Pollentia  and  Verona. 

Soon  after  this  invasion  (406),  several  German  clans  ap-  21 
peared  in  Italy  under  the  command  of  their  prince,  Rada- 
g  a  i  s .  At  the  siege  of  Florence  most  of  them  either  died 
of  starvation  or  were  taken  prisoners  and  sold  as  slaves. 
A  few  cut  their  way  through  the  enemy's  army,  and  es- 
caped into  Gaul. 

It  was,  however,  towards  the  west,  that  the  grand  move-  22 
ment  took  place  from  the  interior  of  Germany.     The  B  ur-  D 
gundians  established  themselves  in  eastern  Gaul,  on  the 
Upper  Rhine  (407),  whilst  the  Alani  and  Suevi  entered 
Spain  by  the  passes  of  the  Pyrenees,  and  spread  themselves 
over  the  Peninsula,  the  Vandals  and  Suevi  occupying 
the  western  portion  (Galicia),  the  Alani  settling  in  Lusi- 
tania  and  Carthagena,  and  a  division  of  the  Vandals  taking 
possession  of  the  district  called  after   them,  Andalusia. 
1* 


10  GERMANY.  [23—25.    §5. 

(22)  The  Tarraconian   province  seems  to  have  been  the  only 
A  portion  of  the  Peninsula  which  remained  in  the  hands  of 
the  Romans. 

23  After  the  assassination  of  Stilico,  Alaric,  disgusted  at  the 
non-payment  of  the  subsidies  granted  by  Honorius,  invested 
Rome,  and  was  only  induced  to  spare  the  city  by  the  pro- 
mise of  an  enormous  ransom.      His  overtures  of  peace 
having  been  rejected  by  the  court  of  Ravenna,  Alaric  ap- 
peared a  second  time  before  Rome,  in  the  year  400  ;  but 
again  raised  the  siege,  and  marched  to  Ravenna ;  then  re- 
turned to  Rome  for  the  third  time  in  410,  took  the  city  by 
treachery  (Aug.  24),  and  punished  the  inhabitants  by  allow- 

B  ing  six  (?)  days'  pillage  to  his  soldiers.  He  died  at  Con- 
sentia,  on  the  march  into  Lower  Italy,  and  was  buried  in  the 
channel  of  the  river  Busentinus.  His  successor,  Athaulf, 
concluded  a  pea/ce  with  Honorius,  and  led  the  Visigoths 
into  Gaul  in  412,  and  into  Spain  in  414.  His  successor, 
Wallia,  overthrew  the  Suevi,  Vandals,  and  Alani,  who  had 
entered  the  country  a  short  time  before ;  then  recrossed 
the  Pyrenees,  and  took  possession  of  the  districts  ceded 
to  him  by  Honorius  in  Aquitania  (from  Toulouse  along 
the  Garonne  to  the  sea,  called  also  Septimania),  and 
chose  Toulouse  for  the  capital  of  his  empire,  which  now 
extended  a  considerable  distance  on  each  side  of  the 
Pyrenees. 

24  The  Vandals  and  Alani,  in  the  year  429,  accepted 
c  an  invitation  from  the  Roman  lieutenant,  Bonifacius  (who 

had  fallen  into  disgrace  at  the  court  of  his  empress),  and 
invaded  the  northern  coast  of  Africa,  where  their 
king,  Geiseric  [Genseric],  after  the  capture  of  Hippo  and 
Carthage,  founded  theVandaHcempire,  with  Carthage 
for  its  capital.  This  empire  comprehended  also  the  islands 
of  the  western  Mediterranean. 

25  Ever  since  the  abandonment  of  Britain  by  the  Roman 
D  legions,  the  island  had  been  ravaged  by  hordes  of  Picts  and 

Scots.  After  applying  in  vain  for  protection  to  the  Romans, 
the  inhabitants  invited  the  Saxons,  Angles,  and  Jut- 
landers,  who  landed  in  the  year  449,  under  the  command 
of  Hengist  and  Horsa,  expelled  the  Picts,  and  settled  in 
the  island,  where  they  gradually  formed  seven  Anglo-Saxon 
kingdoms ;  viz.  Kent,  Sussex,  Wessex,  Essex,  Northum- 
berland, East-Anglia,  and  Mercia.  The  Britons  retired  into 


26.    §6.]  GERMANY.  11 

Wales  and  Cornwall,  or  emigrated  to  the  opposite  coast  of  (25) 
krmorica  (Bretagne). 

§  6.  Dissolution  of  the  Hunnish  Empire. 

The  Huns,  who,  after  the  subjugation  of  the  Eastern  Goths  26 
[Ostrogoths],  had  been  wandering  for  fifty  years  about  A 
Southern  Russia,  Poland,  and  Hungary,  again  became  for- 
midable under  the  command  of  their  king,  A 1 1  i  1  a ,  or  Etzel 
(the  scourge  of  God),  who  reigned  in  conjunction  with  his 
brother  Bleda,  from  434  to  444,  and  alone  from  444  to  453. 
The  Roman  emperors  of  the  east  and  west  having  united  for 
the  purpose  of  rescuing  Africa  from  the  Vandals,  Geiseric 
persuaded  Attila  to  invade  the  eastern  empire.  After  thrice  B 
defeating  Theodosius  II.,  Attila  appeared  before  Constan- 
tinople ;  but  being  unacquainted  with  the  art  of  attacking 
fortified  places,  he  contented  himself  with  exacting  a  yearly 
tribute,  in  addition  to  the  payment  already  guaranteed  by 
Arcadius,  and  compelling  the  emperor  to  cede  a  district  of 
Thrace.  Then  he  entered  Gaul  at  the  head  of  700,000  men, 
but  was  defeated  on  the  Catalaunian  plain,  at  Chalons 
sur  Marne  (451),  by  the  united  forces  of  the  West  Goths 
under  their  king  Theodoric,  and  the  Romans  under  their 
general  Aetius.  In  this  engagement,  the  most  sanguinary,  c 
perhaps,  that  ever  occurred  in  Europe  (106, 000  slain),  Ger- 
mans were  opposed  to  each  other,  some  of  them  serving  in  the 
Roman  army,  and  others  in  that  of  the  Huns.  King  Theo- 
doric was  slain.  The  following  year  (452)  Attila  demanded 
in  marriage  Honoria,  sister  of  Valentinian  III.,  requiring 
half  the  empire  as  her  dowry.  This  proposal  being  rejected, 
he  suddenly  entered  Italy,  sacked  Aquileia,  and  plundered 
all  the  cities  of  Lombardy,  the  inhabitants  of  which  fled  in 
great  numbers  to  the  islands  in  the  lagunes  of  the  Adriatic, 
where  they  founded  the  city  of  Venice.  The  Romans,  D 
headed  by  their  pope,  Leo  I.,  petitioned  for  peace,  which 
was  granted  by  Attila.  After  his  death,  in  the  following 
year  (453),  his  empire,  which  had  extended  from  the  Rhine 
to  the  eastern  bank  of  the  Volga,  rapidly  crumbled  away; 
the  nations  which  had  hitherto  been  subject  to  the  Huns 
driving  them  back  to  the  shores  of  the  Black  Sea,  and 
forming  kingdoms  of  their  own,  the  Gepidse  in  Dacia,  the 
East  Goths  in  Pannonia,  and,  at  a  later  period,  in  Thrace. 


X2     «  GERMANY.  [27.    §  7. 

§  7.  Dissolution  of  the  Western  Roman  Empire. 

27  The  progress  of  the  Germanic  tribes  was  favored  by  the 
A  intestine  confusion  of  the  Western  Roman  empire,  the  capi- 
tal of  which  was  plundered  for  fourteen  days  by  the  Van- 
dals, in  455,  and  its  sceptre  wielded  by  a  Suevian  named 
Ricimer,  in  the  name  of  a  succession  of  puppets,  who  bore 
the  title  of  emperor.  The  West  Goths  [Visigoths]  extend- 
ed their  empire  in  Gaul  to  the  Loire,  the  Rhone,  and  the 
Ocean,  and  put  an  end  to  the  Roman  dominion  in  Spain, 
where  there  remained  only  the  little  kingdom  of  the  Suevi, 
in  Galicia  and  Lusitania.  The  Burgundians  spread  still 
more  widely  in  south-eastern,  and  the  Franks  in  central 
Gaul.  Two  attempts  of  the  Romans  to  reconquer  Africa 
B  were  rendered  abortive  by  Geiseric,  who  annihilated  their 
fleet.  Finally,  Adoacer,  who  had  entered  the  Roman  ser- 
vice as  a  mercenary,  at  the  head  of  a  band  composed  of 
Heruleans,  Rugians,  &c.,  and  had  been  refused  a  third 
of  the  lands  in  Italy,  put  an  end  to  the  empire  of  the  West 
by  deposing  the  emperor  Romulus  Augustulus,  and  was 
proclaimed  king  of  Italy  by  his  German  mercenaries,  in 
476.  The  Roman  possessions  in  Gaul  were  retained  for 
a  time  by  Syagrius,  who  was  finally  defeated  by  Chlodwig 
[Clovis],  at  Soissons,  and  compelled  to  evacuate  the  pro- 
vince in  the  year  486. 


THE  MIDDLE  AGES. 

FIRST  PERIOD. 

From  the  Dissolution  of  the  Western  Empire  to  the  Accession  of  the 
Carlovingians  and  Abbasides,  476—752  (750). 

A.  The  West. 
§  8.  Empires  in  Italy.  * 

I.  The  Italian  empire  established  by  German  28 
mercenaries  under  Odoacer  (476 — 490).  A 

Theodoric,  king  of  the  Eastern  Goths  [Ostrogoths],  who 
had  embraced  the  tenets  of  Arianism  during  his  residence  as 
a  hostage  at  Constantinople,  and  subsequently  taken  service 
in  the  armies  of  the  eastern  empire,  proposed  to  the  emperor 
Zeno  a  plan  for  reconquering  Italy  with  his  Goths.  This 
proposal  being  accepted,  Theodoric  fought  his  way  through 
the  territories  of  the  Gepidse,  and  defeated  Odoacer  in 
three  engagements  (on  the  Isonzo,  the  Adige,  and  the  Adda). 
Odoacer,  after  sustaining  a  siege  for  three  years  in  the 
strongly- fortified  city  of  Ravenna,  surrendered,  and  was 
put  to  death  with  his  family  and  followers,  in  493. 

II.  Empire  of  the  Ostrogoths   in  Italy,  490 — B 
554. 

Theodoric  the  Great  (490 — 526)  was  recognized  as  king  29 
of  Italy  by  Anastasius,  the  successor  of  Zeno.    This  sove- 
reign not  only  strengthened  his  newly-established  throne  by 
wise  laws  and  institutions,  but  extended  his  empire  beyond 
the  boundaries  of  Italy,  over  the  countries  between   the 
Alps  and  the  Danube,  as  well  as  Illyricum,  and  finally  over 
Provence.     Imperial  residence — Ravenna,  and  sometimes 
Verona  or  Bern  (hence  his  German  name  of  Dietrich  of 
Bern).  Prosperity  of  Italy,  in  consequence  of  his  toleration  c 
of  the  Catholics  ;    encouragement  of  agriculture  and  com- 


14  THE   MIDDLE   AGES.  [30.    §  8. 

(29)  merce ;   embellishment  of  the  cities,  drainage,  and  cultiva- 

A  tion  of  the  Pontine  marshes,  &c.  He  succeeded,  also,  in 
maintaining  peace  among  the  German  princes,  most  of 
whom  were  his  relations.  His  brother-in-law,  Chlodwig 
(Clovis),  king  of  the  Franks,  the  only  sovereign  who  offered 
resistance,  was  compelled  to  lay  down  his  arms.  The  Visi- 
gothic  throne  was  secured  to  Amalaric,  a  minor,  the  grand- 
son of  Theodoric,  who  undertook  the  office  of  guardian. 
Theodoric  died  in  526,  of  remorse,  it  is  said,  on  account  of 
the  (perhaps)  unjust  execution  of  the  learned  senator  Boe- 
thius  (who  was  suspected  of  having  negotiated  with  the 

B  eastern  emperor,  Justinian,  for  the  liberation  of  Italy  from 
the  Goths),  and  his  father-in-law,  Symmachus.  Theodoric 
was  succeeded  by  his  daughter,  Amalasuntha,  who  govern- 
ed in  the  name  of  her  son,  Athalaric,  a  minor,  and,  after 
his  untimely  death,  shared  the  throne  with  her  cousin,  The- 
odotus,  by  whom  she  was  murdered.  Under  pretence  of 
avenging  her  death,  Justinian  revived  those  claims  to  the 
sovereignty  of  Italy  which  had  never  been  entirely  aban- 
doned by  the  eastern  court.  Hence  arose  the  eighteen 
years'  war.  The  Byzantine  general,  Belisarius,  soon  made 
himself  master  of  Sicily  and  Italy;  but  these  advantages 
were  lost,  in  consequence  of  his  being  twice  recalled,  the 

c  Goths,  under  their  leader  Totila,  reconquering  the  terri- 
tory which  had  been  wrested  from  them.  Germans  (Heru- 
lians  and  Langobardi)  now  fought  as  mercenaries  against 
Germans,  under  Narses,  who  was  victorious  at  Taginos,  in 
Etruria,  where  Totilas  was  slain.  In  this  war  Rome  was 
taken  for  the  fifth  time ;  and  the  heroic  king,  Tejas,  found, 
like  his  brave  predecessor,  Totila,  a  soldier's  grave  on  the 
field  of  battle.  A  portion  of  the  Goths  capitulated,  on  con- 
dition of  being  permitted  to  depart  in  peace ;  whilst  the 
remainder,  who  had  invited  two  German  princes  to  enter 
Italy  at  the  head  of  the  Franks  and  Alemanni,  were  over- 
thrown, together  with  their  allies,  by  Narses  in  554,  and 

D  compelled  to  submit  to  the  conqueror.     Italy  became  a 

province   of  the   eastern  empire,  and  was  governed  by 

exarchs  resident  at  Ravenna,  of  whom  Narses  was  the  first. 

III.  Byzantine  dominion  in  Italy. 

In  the  year  568  the  Langobardi  entered  Italy,  and,  after 

30  a  succession  of  battles,  compelled  the  Romans  to  relinquish 

their  sovereignty  over  the  whole  of  Italy,  (which  they  had 


31.    §8.]  EMPIRES    IN    ITALY.  15 

exercised  for  fourteen  years),  and  confine  themselves  to  the  (30) 
territories  strictly  comprehended  within  their  exarchate, —  A 
Rome,  Naples,  and  southern  Italy,  to  which  was  added  the 
name  of  Calabria,  although  they  had  lost  that  province. 

IV.  Empire  of  the  Langobardi,    568 — 774. 

On  their  return  from  Italy,  the  Langobardi,  who  had  31 
assisted  Narses  against  the  Ostrogoths,  overthrew  (under 
the  command  of  their  king  Alboin,  and  with  the  aid  of  the 
Avari)  the  empire  of  the  Gepidse,  whose  name,  from  this 
time,  merges  in  those  of  the  neighboring  tribes.  Leaving 
Pannonia  to  the  Avari,  the  Langobardi  returned  to  Italy, 
by  the  invitation,  as  they  pretended,  of  the  disgraced  gene- 
ral, Narses,  and  with  the  aid  of  20,000  Saxons,  and  some 
other  hordes,  wrested  from  the  Byzantines  the  whole  of 
Upper  Italy,  which  thenceforward  was  named  from  them, 
Lombardy.  Pavia,  after  a  siege  of  three  years,  surrendered  B 
to  the  conquerors,  and  was  made  the  capital  of  their  king- 
dom. After  the  assassination  of  Alboin  (at  the  instigation 
of  his  wife  Rosamond),  the  empire  was  extended  south- 
wards by  his  successor,  Kleph,  so  as  to  comprehend  almost 
the  whole  of  Italy,  with  the  exception  of  a  few  strips  of 
land  on  the  coast.  The  southern  division  formed  the  duchy 
of  Benevento.  Kleph  having  been  also  assassinated,  an 
interregnum  of  ten  years  succeeded,  during  which  the 
country  was  governed  by  thirty-six  dukes,  among  whom 
the  most  powerful  were  those  of  Friuli  and  Benevento.  At  c 
the  end  of  this  period  it  was  found  necessary  to  restore  the 
office  of  king,  and  Anthari,  the  son  of  Kleph,  was  raised  to 
the  throne.  The  wife  of  this  sovereign,  a  Bavarian  Ca- 
tholic named  Theodolinda,  commenced  the  conversion  of 
the  Arian  Lombards  to  the  orthodox  faith.  Under  suc- 
ceeding kings,  the  eastern  and  western  coasts  of  northern 
Italy  fell  into  the  hands  of  the  Langobardi,  who  confined 
the  exarchate  within  the  limits  of  Calabria  and  the  district 
around  Naples,  and  even  laid  claim  to  the  sovereignty  of 
Rome  and  its  territory.  In  his  terror  at  this  demonstration,  D 
Pope  Stephen  III.  applied  for  aid  to  Pepin  the  Short  [Pepin 
le  Bref  ],  king  of  the  Franks,  whom  he  had  himself  anointed. 
After  two  campaigns  in  Italy,  Pepin  compelled  the  Lango- 
bardi to  cede  to  the  Pope  that  portion  of  the  coast  of  the 
Adriatic  which  had  most  recently  fallen  into  their  hands, 
and  thus  laid  the  foundation  of  his  temporal  power.  The 


16  THE    MIDDLE    AGES  [32,  33.    §  9. 

(31)  interference  of  the  Franks  in  disputes  between  the  Pope  and 
A  the  Lombards,  occasioned  the  incorporation  of  the  Lango- 
bardic  empire  into  that  of  the  Franks,  in  the  year  774. 

§  9.  Empire  of  the  Vandals  in  Africa,  429 — 534. 

32  Extent  of  the  empire,     a.    In  Africa  :    the  whole 
northern  line  of  coast,  from  the  Atlantic  Ocean  to  Cyre- 
naica,  comprehending    the    ancient  Roman  provinces  of 
Mauritania,  Numidia,  Africa  Propria,  and  the  district  of  the 
Syrtes.     b.  Out  of  Africa :  the  islands  of  Sardinia  and 
Corsica,  the  Balearic  and  Pityusian  islands,  and  Sicily  (at 
first  the  whole  island,  but  subsequently  [493]  only  the 
north-western  part). 

33  History.     For  the  establishment  of  the  empire  by  Gei- 
B  seric,  see  §  5.     The   Roman   emperor,  Valentinian  III., 

having  fallen  by  the  hand  of  Maximus,  his  widow,  Eudoxia, 
who  had  been  compelled  to  marry  the  assassin,  implores 
the  assistance  of  Geiseric,  who  lands  on  the  coast  of  Italy, 
and  plunders  Rome  for  fourteen  days,  in  the  year  455. 
Maximus  is  slain  ;  Eudoxia,  with  her  treasures  and  a  crowd 
of  prisoners,  conveyed  to  Carthage  ;  and  all  the  Italian 
islands  ceded  to  the  conqueror.  In  order  to  clear  the 
Mediterranean  of  Vandal  pirates,  a  fleet  of  1113  sail  is 
equipped,  by  the  united  exertions  of  the  two  emperors, 

c  and  despatched  to  Carthage.  This  fleet  is  attacked  in  the 
night  by  Geiseric,  and  the  ships  partly  destroyed  and  partly 
dispersed  (468).  The  decline  of  the  Vandal  empire,  which 
commenced  with  the  death  of  its  founder,  was  accelerated 
by  the  frequent  attacks  of  the  Barbary  tribes,  and  the  per- 
secution  carried  on  against  the  Catholics,  of  which  Geiseric, 
himself  an  Arian,  had  set  the  example.  Availing  himself 
of  this  position  of  affairs,  Justinian,  the  Byzantine  emperor, 
despatched  a  fleet  to  the  coast  of  Africa,  under  the  com- 
mand of  his  general,  Belisarius,  who  found  the  throne  occu- 
pied by  Gelimer,  the  last  of  the  Vandal  kings,  and  suc- 

D  cessor  of  the  deposed  sovereign,  Hilderic.  After  an  en- 
gagement, in  which  the  Vandals  were  defeated,  Carthage 
surrendered,  without  offering  any  resistance  ;  and  soon 
afterwards  the  whole  Vandal  army  was  routed,  and  their 
country  entirely  subdued  (534).  Gelimer,  after  gracing 
the  triumphal  entry  of  Belisarius  into  Constantinople,  re- 


34 36.  §10,  11.]    THE  SUEVI THE  WESTERN  GOTHS.         17 

ceived  an  allotment  of  land  in  Asia  Minor ;  the  bravest  of  (33) 
the  Vandals  were  enrolled  in  the  Roman  cavalry,  and  the  A 
remainder  absorbed  into  the  mass  of  African  tributaries. 

§  10.  Empire  of  the  Suevi  in  Spain,  409 — 585. 

The  whole  of  Bo3tica,  together  with  the  Carthaginian  pro-  34 
vince,  had  been  occupied  since  the  departure  of  the  Van- 
dals by  the  Suevi,  who  had  settled  in  Galicia  on  their  first 
arrival  in  Spain.  Their  first  Christian  (Catholic)  sove- 
reign, Rechiar,  was  attacked  in  consequence  of  his  frequent 
inroads  into  the  Roman  province  Tarraconensis,  by  The- 
odoric  II.,  king  of  the  Visigoths,  defeated  at  Paramo,  on 
the  river  Obrego,  and  executed.  The  empire  of  the  Suevi  B 
seemed  now  at  an  end ;  but  the  remnant  of  the  nation 
having  assembled  in  a  remote  corner  of  Galicia,  a  new 
king  was  chosen,  and  their  former  piratical  practices  re- 
sumed. This  independent  Suevic  kingdom,  being  distracted 
by  political  struggles,  was  finally  incorporated  into  the 
Visigothic  empire,  in  the  year  585. 

§  11.  Empire  of  the  Visigoths,  419 — 712. 

Extent  of  the  empire,  a.  In  Gaul.  At  first  (419),  35 
Aquitania  Secunda ;  subsequently  (439),  the  whole  country  c 
bordering  on  the  Mediterranean,  from  the  Rhone  to  the 
Pyrenees,  at  a  later  period  styled  exclusively  Septimania; 
from  the  time  of  Euric  (475),  the  country  between  the 
Rhone,  the  Loire,  and  the  Ocean.  After  the  battle  of  Vougle 
(507),  only  the  extreme  southern  part  of  their  Gallic  em- 
pire remained  in  the  hands  of  the  Visigoths ;  and  even 
of  this  a  portion  was  wrested  from  them  by  the  Franks,  in 
531.  b.  In  Spain.  At  first  only  the  country  between  the  D 
Pyrenees,  the  Mediterranean,  and  the  Ebro ;  from  the  time 
of  Euric,  the  whole  of  Spain,  with  the  exception  of  the 
Suevic  kingdom  and  the  territory  of  the  Vasci  in  the  north; 
from  the  time  of  Leuwigild,  the  whole  of  Spain,  with  the 
exception,  at  first,  of  some  maritime  cities  in  the  south,  and 
a  part  of  the  northern  district ;  at  a  later  period,  Ceuta,  in 
Africa,  with  its  territory. 

History.      Wallia,   the   founder  of  the    Visigothic  36 
empire  (see  §  5),  was  succeeded  by  Theodoric  I.,  who 


18  THE    MIDDLE    AGES.  [37,  38.    §11. 

(36)  defeated  a  Roman  army,  extended  his  empire  as  far  as  the 
A  Rhone,  and  fell  in  the  battle  of  the  Catalaunian  fields. 
Theodoric  II.  subdued  the  greater  part  of  the  Sue  vie 
empire.  His  successor,  Euric,  extended  his  empire  in 
Gaul  to  the  Rhone,  the  Loire,  and  the  Ocean ;  expelled  the 
Romans  from  Spain,  and  compiled  a  catalogue  of  the  legal 
usages  of  the  Goths.  His  violent  persecution  of  the  Catho- 
lics compelled  them  to  form  an  alliance  with  the  half-con- 
verted Prankish  king,  Chlodwig  [Clovis],  who,  under  pre- 
tence of  rooting  out  the  Arian  heresy,  attacked  Alaric  II.. 
son  and  successor  of  Euric,  slew  him  with  his  own  hand  in 
the  battle  of  Vougle,  near  Poitiers  (507),  and  stripped 
the  Visigoths  of  all  their  possessions  in  Gaul,  except  a 
B  portion  of  Septimania.  During  the  minority  of  his  son  and 
successor,  Amalric,  the  Visigothic  empire  was  united,  for 
fourteen  years,  to  his  own  dominions,  by  Theodoric,  king 
of  the  Ostrogoths.  After  the  death  of  Amalric,  who  was 
slain  during  a  war  occasioned  by  his  ill-treatment  of  his 
wife,  Clotilda,  a  daughter  of  Chlodwig,  the  imperial  resi- 
dence was  transferred  to  Toledo,  in  531. 

37  The  Visigothic  empire  was  still  surther  circumscribed 
by  the  Byzantines,  who  invaded  the  country  on  the  invita- 
tion of  Athanagild  (an  insurgent,  and  subsequently  king), 

c  and  conquered  the  whole  southern  line  of  coast.  For  this 
loss  they  were  in  some  measure  indemnified  by  the  sub- 
jugation of  the  rebellious  Cantabrians  and  Vasci,  and  the 
conquest  of  the  Suevic  empire,  by  Leuwigild,  who  also 
compelled  the  Byzantines  to  restore  several  of  the  cities 
which  they  had  taken. 

38  After  the  establishment  of  a  natural  boundary-line,  by 
the  expulsion  of  the  Greeks  from  Spain  (624),  the  attention 
of  the  Visigothic  kings  was  directed  rather  to  the  consolida- 
tion of  their  own  power,  than  the  extension  of  their  terri- 

D  tories.  The  only  foreign  conquest  during  this  period  was 
a  portion  of  Mauritania.  Notwithstanding  the  amalga- 
mation of  the  Visigoths  and  Romans,  in  consequence  of 
intermarriages,  the  adoption  of  the  Catholic  religion  by  the 
former,  and  the  establishment  of  a  common  code  of  laws, 
the  succession  to  the  throne  occasioned  perpetual  disputes, 
for  the  settlement  of  which  the  Arabians  were  at  last  in- 
vited over  from  Africa.  On  receiving  this  invitation,  Musa 
immediately  despatched  an  army  into  Spain,  under  the 


39,  40.    §  12,   13.]     THE    BURGUNDIANS.  19 

command  of  his  lieutenant,  Tarek,  who  overthrew  Roderic,  (38) 
the  last  of  the  Visigothic  kings,  at  Xeres  de  la  Fron-A 
tera,  after  a  struggle  which  lasted  nine  days  (711).  Musa 
soon  afterwards  followed  his  lieutenant  into  Spain,  and  the 
greater  part  of  the  Peninsula  was  already  in  their  hands, 
when  the  two  generals  were  suddenly  recalled  by  a  com- 
mand of  their  caliph.  After  their  departure,  the  Pyrensean 
Peninsula  was  divided  into — 1.  Arabian  Spain,  governed 
by  lieutenants  of  the  caliphs  of  Bagdad,  until  the  establish- 
ment (756)  of  an  independent  kingdom  at  Cordova,  by 
Abderrahman,  the  last  Ommaijade.  2.  The  Christian 
kingdom  of  Asturia,  where  a  remnant  of  the  beaten  Visi- 
goths maintained  themselves  against  the  Arabians. 

§  12.  Empire  of  the  Burgundians  in  Gaul,  407 — 533. 

The  Burgundians  (probably  the  people  named  by  Taci-  39 
tus,  Burii)  first  appeared  in  the  first  century,  in  the  neigh-  B 
bourhood  of  the  Vistula.  They  seem  to  have  been  a 
branch  of  the  great  Suevic  stock.  The  loss  of  a  battle 
against  the  Gepidae  (about  250)  having  compelled  them  to 
retire  westward,  they  settled  on  the  Upper  Rhine,  in  the 
neighbourhood  of  the  Alemanni ;  and.  at  a  later  period, 
received  allotments  of  land  from  the  Romans  in  Germania 
Superior  (Alsace).  Thence  they  spread  southwards,  over 
parts  of  Helvetia,  Savoy,  Dauphine,  Lyonnois,  and  Franche- 
Compte.  At  the  head  of  the  nation  was  a  high-priest,  who  c 
held  his  office  for  life  (Sinist).  Their  kings  (Hendinos), 
who  resided  sometimes  at  Geneva  and  sometimes  at  Lyons, 
were  set  aside  for  failure  in  war,  or  on  account  of  per- 
sonal deformity.  Disputed  successions  occasioned  the 
introduction  of  Frankish  kings  (of  Paris,  Soissons,  and 
Metz),  who  conquered  the  kingdom  and  divided  it 
among  themselves  in  the  year  533  (?).  The  Burgun-  D 
dians  were  compelled  to  pay  tribute  and  render  military 
service  to  the  conqueror,  but  retained  their  own  laws  and 
customs. 

§  13.  Empire  of  the  Franks  under  the  Merovingians. 

Since  the  middle  of  the  first  century,  bands  of  Frankish  40 
warriors  had  been  accustomed  to  cross  the  Rhine ;  at  first 


20  THE    MIDDLE    AGES.  [40.    §  13. 

(40)  for  the  mere  purpose  of  plunder,  and  subsequently  in  the 

A  hope  of  obtaining  settlements ;  which  they  acquired  partly 
by  force  of  arms  and  partly  as  rewards  for  their  services  in 
the  Roman  army.  These  Prankish  settlers  in  Gaul  are 
divided  into  two  principal  branches:  the  Salii,  between 
the  Scheld  and  Meuse;  and  Ripuarii,  probably  between 
the  Meuse,  Moselle,  and  Rhine.  Their  clans  lived  indepen- 
dently of  one  another,  each  under  its  own  chief,  until  the 
time  of  Chlodwig  [Clovis],  the  grandson  of  Merovseus, 
or  Merwig,  who  succeeded  his  father  as  king  of  the  Franks 

B  in  481.  This  monarch  put  an  end  to  the  Roman  supremacy 
in  Gaul  by  the  overthrow  of  their  governor,  Syagrius,  at 
Soissons,  in  486 ;  and,  in  conjunction  with  the  Prankish 
king,  Siegbert,  who  resided  at  Cologne  (?),  subdued  a  por- 
tion of  the  Alemanni  (probably  only  those  who  dwelt  on 
the  left  bank  of  the  Rhine,  between  the  Moselle  and  Alsace) 
in  a  battle  fought  (perhaps)  near  Tolbiacum  or  Ziilpich. 
Having  embraced  the  Catholic  religion,  in  fulfilment  of  a 
vow  made  during  the  battle,  Chlodwig  caused  himself  to 
be  anointed  and  crowned  king  of  the  Franks  by  Remigius, 

c  bishop  of  Rheims.  After  subduing  the  Armorici  in  Brittany, 
he  marched  against  his  southern  neighbours,  the  Burgun- 
dians  and  Visigoths ;  who  were  reduced  to  the  condition 
of  tributaries,  after  sustaining  a  defeat  at  Dijon  in  500, 
but  speedily  recovered  their  independence.  Under  pre- 
tence of  expelling  the  Arian  heretics  from  Gaul,  Chlodwig 
again  attacked  them,  and  after  obtaining  a  decisive  victory 
at  Vougle,  on  the  Vienne,  near  Poictiers,  where  he  slew 
their  king,  Alaric  II.,  with  his  own  hand  (507),  deprived 
them  of  all  their  possessions  in  Gaul,  except  the  southern 
portion.  After  this  war  Chlodwig  transferred  his  residence 

D  to  Paris.  All  the  Prankish  clans  were  at  length  united  into 
one  kingdom,  their  petty  sovereigns  (Siegbert  of  Cologne, 
Chararich  of  Belgium,  and  Ragnachar  of  Cambrai)  having 
been  previously  removed  by  assassination.  After  the  death 
of  Chlodwig,  in  511,  the  empire  was  divided  among  his 
four  sons,  Dietrich  [Thierry],  Clodomer,  Childebert,  and 
Clotar  [Clothaire],  who  fixed  their  respective  residences  at 
Metz,  Orleans,  Paris,  and  Soissons.  The  king  of  Metz  over- 
threw the  Thuringian  and  Burgundian  empires  about  the 
year  533,  and  shared  the  Burgundian  territory  with  the  kings 
of  Paris  and  Soissons,  who  had  assisted  him  in  its  conquest. 


41 44.    §  13.]  THE    MEROVINGIANS.  21 

The  empire  of  the  Franks  was  still  further  enlarged  when  (40) 
the  Ostrogoths,  in  order  to  prevent  the  formation  of  an  A 
alliance  between  the  Franks  and  Byzantines,  ceded  to  the 
former  the  Ostrogothic  territories  in  Gaul  (Provence)  and 
the  Alemannic  settlements  in  Rhcetia.     The  Bavarians, 
also,  were  incorporated  into  the  empire,  retaining  their 
own  duke. 

The  empire  of  the  Franks  was  reunited  under  Clotar  I.  41 
[Clothaire],  the  youngest  of  Chlodwig's  sons,  who  survived 
all  his  brothers  and  their  descendants.  After  his  death 
the  monarchy,  which  had  been  consolidated  for  three  years 
(558 — 561),  was  again  divided  into  four  kingdoms,  by 
his  four  sons,  an  arrangement  which  remained  until  the 
death  of  Charibert,  king  of  Paris,  in  569,  when  the  number 
was  reduced  to  three  :  viz. 

a.  Austrasia,  or  the  eastern  empire,  comprehending  B 
the  north-eastern  portion  of  Gaul,  with  parts  of  southern 
Gaul ;  and,  in  Germany,  the  territory  of  the  Franconians, 
Thuringia,  and  the  duchies  of  Bavaria  and  Alemannia, 
or  Swabia.     Capital — Metz. 

b.  N  e  u  s  t  r  i  a,  or  the  western  empire,  also  Soissons,  com- 
prising the  whole  of  north-western  Gaul,  from  the  Waal  to 
the  Loire,  and  a  part  of  Aquitania.     Capital — Soissons. 

c.  Burgundy,  or  the  southern  empire,  containing  be-  c 
sides  the  ancient  Burgundian  territory,  the  former  kingdom 
of  Orleans  (as  well  as  Sundgau,  Alsace,  Thurgau,  and 
parts  of  Aquitania  and  Provence).     Capital — Orleans. 

Paris  continued  to  be  the  common  capital  of  the  three  42 
kingdoms. 

The  history  of  Clotar's  [Clothaire's]  successors  is  a  cata-  43 
logue  of  intestine  disturbances,  treasons,  and  murders,  occa- 
sioned principally  by  the  rivalry  of  the  two  queens  Brune- 
hilde  (who  murdered  ten  kings  and  princes  of  the  blood 
royal)  and  Fredegunde.  The  empire  was  a  second  time 
united  by  Clotar  [Clothaire]  II.  in  613. 

The  Prankish  empire  under  the  administra-D 
tion  of  the  majores  domus,  613 — 752. 

In  the  reign  of  Clotar  [Clothaire]  II.  we  first  hear  of  three  44 
majores  domus,  i.  e.  heads  of  the  royal  household  (gasindi) ; 
who  acted  also  as  chief  stewards  of  the  royal  demesnes  and 
fiefs  (see  §  14) ;  viz.  one  in  Austrasia,  one  in  Neustria,  and 
one  in  Burgundy.    The  major  domus  of  Austrasia,  Pepin  of 


22  THE   MIDDLE   AGES.  [45.    §  14. 

(44)  Landen,  of  a  distinguished  house  in  Luttich,  or  Liege,  in- 
A  duced  Clotar  II.  to  cede  Austrasia  (in  622)  to  his  elder 
son,  Dagobert,  who,  after  the  death  of  his  father  and  his 
younger  brothers,  united  the  Prankish  monarchy 
for  the  third  time  (631).  Pepin  became  major  domus 
of  the  whole  empire,  from  which,  however,  the  Austrasians 
soon  afterwards  separated  themselves,  under  Dagobert  I. 
As  few  of  his  successors  attained  the  age,  and  none  pos- 
sessed the  vigour,  of  manhood,  the  sceptre  of  the  Prankish 
monarchy  was  in  reality  wielded  by  their  majores  domus. 
One  of  these  officers,  named  Pepin  of  Heristal,  a 
grandson  of  Pepin  of  Landen,  after  his  victory  at  Testri, 
in  687,  became  sole  major  domus  of  France,  with  the  title 
B  of  duke  and  prince  of  the  Franks.  After  his  death,  in  714, 
the  succession  to  the  office  was  disputed  among  his  sons  for 
ten  years,  and  finally  decided  in  favour  of  Charles  Mar- 
tel,  who  reduced  the  rebellious  dukes  of  the  tributary 
nations  Alemannia,  Bavaria,  and  Thuringia,  defeated  the 
Arabians  (who  had  invaded  France)  between  Tours  and 
Poictiers,in  732,  and  subdued  the  Friesesand  a  portion 
of  the  Saxons.  His  sons  Carloman  and  Pepin  the  Short 
[Pepin  le  Bref]  held  the  office  conjointly,  until  the  retire- 
ment of  Carloman  into  a  convent  (Monte  Cassino),  when 
c  the  entire  administration  of  the  kingdom  devolved  on 
Pepin.  Having  secured  the  respect  of  the  nobles  and 
people  by  his  bravery  in  the  Saxon  and  Bavarian  wars, 
and  conciliated  the  clergy  by  the  support  which  he  afforded 
to  Archbishop  Bonifacius,  in  his  plans  for  the  reformation 
of  the  Church,  Pepin,  with  the  consent  of  Pope  Zacharias, 
summoned  a  general  assembly  of  the  empire,  which  met  at 
Soissons,  and  deposed  the  incapable  king,  Childeric  III., 
who  retired  into  a  convent.  Pepin  was  then  chosen  king  of 
the  Franks,  and  anointed  by  Bonifacius  in  the  year  752. 

f    §  14.  Religion,  Manners,  and  Customs  of  the  West,  par- 
ticularly of  the  Prankish  Empire* 

1.  Religion. 

45      a.  Introduction  of  Christianity.     It  is  worthy  of  remark, 

D  that  Arianism  was  adopted  only  by  those  German  tribes 

who  had  previously  been  worshippers  of  Odin, — the  East 

and  West  Goths,  Vandals,  and  Lombards ;   whilst,  on  the 


46.    §  14.]          RELIGION,    ETC.,    OF    THE    WEST.  23 

other  hand,  no  trace  can  be  found  of  such  a  worship  among  (45) 
the  disciples  of  Catholicism, — the  Frieses,  Franks,  Ale-  A 
manni,  Thuringians,  Burgundians,  and  Suevi.  At  a  later 
period,  the  West  Goths  [or  Visigoths]  and  Lombards  were 
persuaded  by  their  kings  to  renounce  Arianism,  and  embrace 
the  Catholic  faith.  At  the  commencement  of  this  period  the 
Germans  were  still  heathens,  and  their  religion  nearly  the 
same  as  that  described  by  Tacitus.  (Comp.  §  2.)  It  would 
seem,  however,  that  the  pure  adoration  of  nature  which  they 
originally  professed,  degenerated,  after  a  time,  into  idolatry 
(e.  g.  the  Irminsul),  in  consequence  of  their  intercourse 
with  civilized  nations ;  and  eventually  into  a  sort  of  Fetish 
worship.  Although  Chlodwig  and  his  followers  embraced  B 
Christianity  after  their  victory  over  the  Alemanni,  an  ex- 
ample which  was  gradually  followed  by  the  remainder  of 
the  Frankish  nation,  no  attempt  was  made  either  by  that 
monarch  or  his  immediate  successors,  to  convert  their  tri- 
butaries in  Germany, — the  Alemanni,  Bavarians,  and  Thu- 
ringians. The  Burgundians,  soon  after  their  settlement  in 
Gaul,  embraced  the  Catholic  religion.  In  the  reign  of 
Dagobert  I.,  some  efforts  were  made  by  the  Frankish 
bishops  for  the  propagation  of  the  Gospel ;  but  the  work 
was  still  more  effectually  performed  by  missionaries  from 
Ireland.  The  Alemanni  were  converted  by  Columban  and  c 
his  disciple,  Gallus,  and  some  attempts  were  made  by 
Kilian  in  Thuringia  ;  but  the  conversion  of  the  Germans  is 
principally  due  to  Win  fried  [Winifred]  of  Wessex,  after- 
wards called  Bonifacius,  and  the  "  Apostle  of  Germany ' ' 
(717 — 754),  who  preached  to  the  Frieses  and  Catti,  or  Hes- 
sians (destruction  of  the  sacred  oak  at  Geismar),  founded 
churches,  convents  and  schools ;  established  new  bishoprics, 
which  were  immediately  subject  to  the  see  of  Rome ;  held 
the  first  synods  in  Germany;  and  after  filling  the  office  of 
bishop  (723)  and  archbishop  (732)  without  any  settled  dio- 
cese, was  finally  appointed  archbishop  of  Mainz  [Mayence] 
(745),  and  suffered  martyrdom  among  the  Frieses  in  754. 

b.   The  Monastic  Life,  considered  independently  of  those  46 
ascetic  institutions  (the  Pythagorean  obligation,  the  Essenes,  D 
&c.),  which  existed  previously  to  the  Christian  sera,  seems 
to  have  originated  with  those  holy  men  who  were  com- 
pelled to  lead  secluded  lives  by  the  persecutions  to  which 
they  were  exposed  as  professors  of  Christianity.     A  con- 


24  THE    MIDDLE   AGES.  [47,  48.    §  14. 

(46)  siderable  number  of  these  solitaries  (monachi),  who  had 
A  taken  refuge  in  the  Egyptian  desert,  established  themselves 
in  huts  round  the  dwelling  of  St.  Anthony  (about  305), 
whose  disciple,  Pachomius,  assembled  them  on  the  island 
Tabenna,  in  the  Nile,  within  the  walls  of  a  single  building, 
denominated  Coenobium,  or  Monasterium,  under  the  pre- 
sidency of  a  chief  (abbas,  hence  the  term  "  abbot ").  From 
Egypt  these  CoBnobites  rapidly  spread  over  the  neighbour- 
ing districts,  as  well  as  over  Europe.  In  the  west  a  new 
form  was  given  to  this  institution  by  St.  Benedict,  of 
Nursia  (480 — 543).  His  "rule,"  framed  originally  for 
the  convent  (claustrum)  founded  by  him  on  Monte  Cassino, 
near  Naples,  was  gradually  adopted  in  all  the  western 
B  monasteries.  It  required  that  all  who  entered  a  monastery 
should,  at  the  expiration  of  their  novitiate,  solemnly  pro- 
mise to  pass  the  remainder  of  their  lives  in  the  convent, 
and  take  the  threefold  vow  of  poverty,  chastity,  and  obedi- 
ence. From  the  sixth  to  the  ninth  century,  the  cultivation 
of  the  soil,  and  the  introduction  of  Christianity  among  the 
German  and  Sclavonic  tribes,  made  rapid  progress,  in  con- 
sequence of  the  activity  and  intelligence  of  the  monks. 

47  c.  Relation  of  the  Church  to  the  State.    As  the  king  was 
considered  the  protector  of  the  Church  within  his  own  do- 
minions, and  the  emperor  its  supreme  defender,  it  followed, 
of  course,  that  the  excommunication  of  the  Church  and  the 

c  ban  of  the  empire  were  inseparable.  The  most  capricious 
inroads  on  the  privileges  of  the  Church  were  made  by  the 
emperor  and  kings ;  in  the  collation,  for  instance,  to  epis- 
copal sees,  which  the  king  or  queen  sometimes  bestowed 
even  on  laymen ;  and  in  the  confirmation,  by  the  eastern 
emperor,  of  the  pope's  election.  The  jurisdiction  conceded 
to  the  bishops,  which  at  first  had  been  restricted  to  eccle- 
siastical causes,  extended  itself  gradually  to  all  matters  in 
which  the  duties  of  religion  or  of  conscience  were  involved. 
The  heaviest  ecclesiastical  punishment  was  excommuni- 
cation. 

48  2.  Political  constitution. 

D  Origin  and  Development  of  the  German  States. — The 
warlike  enterprises  of  the  ancient  German  nations  were  of 
two  sorts :  1 .  Those  in  which  all  the  freemen  capable  of 
bearing  arms  served  under  the  command  of  a  duke  chosen 
from  one  of  the  principal  families.  These  were,  generally 


48,  49.    §  14.]  GERMAN    STATES.  25 

speaking,  defensive  wars.  2.  Expeditions  or  forays,  under-  (48) 
taken  by  an  army  composed  of  vassals  (Gasindi,  Leudes),  A 
for  purposes  of  plunder  and  conquest.  Their  leader  was 
either  the  proposer  of  the  expedition,  or  a  warrior  chosen 
for  the  occasion.  A  third  of  the  land  belonging  to  the 
countries  which  they  conquered  was  claimed  by  the  con- 
querors (e.  g.  Odoacer  and  Theodoric  the  Great),  or  some- 
times two-thirds  (the  Burgundians,  Suevi,  West  Goths,  and 
possibly  Vandals),  but  rarely  the  whole  (the  Langobardi 
and  Anglo-Saxons).  The  conqueror  established  a  settle- 
ment in  the  conquered  country.  The  leader  retained  his 
office  as  lord  or  captain  of  his  followers,  even  after  the 
conquest  was  completed  ;  and  after  his  death  his  nearest 
relation  was  elected  to  fill  the  vacant  throne.  Thus  the  B 
German  monarchies  were  at  once  hereditary  and  elective. 
The  election  was  followed  by  the  elevation  of  the  success- 
ful candidate  on  a  shield.  The  king  always  appeared  in 
public  surrounded  by  the  chiefs  who  composed  the  nobility 
of  his  kingdom.  This  order  comprehended,  a.  The  dukes 
and  counts,  or  leaders  of  the  divisions  and  sub-divisions  of 
the  clansmen,  who,  as  the  king's  lieutenants,  exercised  the 
functions  of  commanders  and  judges,  and  were  at  the 
same  time  invested  with  the  four  offices  which  existed  at 
every  German  court,  viz. :  Marshall,  Chamberlain,  Butler, 
and  Sewer,  i.  After  the  introduction  of  Christianity  the  c 
order  included  also  the  superior  clergy,  namely,  the  Ab- 
bots, Bishops,  and  Archbishops.  The  power  of  the  kings 
consisted  in  their  prerogative  of  calling  out  the  army  and 
of  pronouncing  judgment  on  offenders.  Their  depend- 
ence in  some  sort  on  the  Roman  Emperors,  in  whose 
service  many  of  them  had  fought  their  way  to  the  throne, 
was  manifested  by  the  eagerness  with  which  some  of  them 
(Chlodvvig,  Theodoric  the  Great)  sought  the  title  of  Ro- 
man Patricius  or  Consul ;  and  by  the  fact  that  they  gene- 
rally  considered  themselves,  at  least  with  reference  to  their 
Roman  subjects,  as  the  Emperor's  lieutenants.  The  influ-  D 
ence  of  Rome  was  also  seen  in  the  etiquette  of  their 
courts,  as  well  as  in  their  civic  and  provincial  administra- 
tion, and  the  retention  of  the  Roman  code  for  the  clergy 
and  the  Roman  population. 

b.   The  feudal  system.       The   territory   obtained   by 
conquest  was  divided  by  the  king  among    his  followers 
2 


26  THE    MIDDLE    AGES.  [50.    §  14. 

(49)  (Gasindi),  each  receiving  an  allotment  termed  Allodium, 

A  as  an  hereditary  freehold  which  he  was  permitted  to 
sub-divide  at  his  pleasure.  In  this  division,  the  king  him- 
self received  a  larger  allotment  than  the  members  of  his 
suite,  and  was  therefore  in  a  condition  to  confer  on  some  of 
his  faithful  followers  (Vassen  or  Vassals),  leasehold  estates 
(termed  fiefs,  allodia,  or  beneficia),  tenable  for  life,  on 
condition  of  their  swearing  fidelity  to  the  sovereign  and 
engaging  to  render  military  service  when  called  on.  Thus 
the  whole  body  of  allodial  proprietors  were  gradually 

B  reduced  to  the  condition  of  vassals.  The  chief  of  these 
vassals  was  the  major  domus  (regise),  who,  as  the  king's 
first  lieutenant,  led  the  serfs  to  battle,  disposed  of  the 
royal  patronage,  and  sometimes  (in  Austrasia),  represented 
the  king  on  the  judgment-seat,  in  the  place  of  the  Comes 
Palatii,  who  was  subject  to  his  authority.  At  first,  the 
fiefs  were  not  hereditary,  but  this  privilege  was  gradually 
either  granted  by  the  kings  or  usurped  by  the  vassals. 
As  the  feudal  lord  was  bound  to  protect  his  vassals,  many 
of  the  small  proprietors,  conscious  of  their  own  weakness, 
made  over  their  allodes  to  some  powerful  neighbor,  from 
whom  they  received  them  back  as  fiefs  (feudumoblatum). 
Thus  many  of  the  allodes  were  converted  into  feudal 

c  estates.  At  the  same  time  their  military  system  under- 
went  a  revolution  correspondent  to  the  political  changes 
which  had  been  effected  among  the  Franks,  Anglo-Saxons, 
Lombards,  and  many  other  Germanic  tribes.  The  army 
was  now  composed  partly  of  independent  inhabitants  of 
separate  Gaus,  under  the  command  of  their  Count,  and 
partly  of  vassals  under  their  feudal  Lords.  The  former 
were  called  out,  by  a  decree  of  the  people,  to  defend  the 
lands  in  their  own  immediate  neighborhood — the  latter 
served  in  campaigns  of  every  description  in  obedience  to 
the  sovereign's  command.  Among  the  Franks,  the  army 
was  annually  reviewed  in  the  Field  of  Mars. 
50  c.  Legislation.  Until  the  middle  of  the  fifth  century 

D  the  German  tribes  possessed  only  unwritten  laws  ;  in  the 
three  next  centuries,  written  leges  were  introduced  amongst 
the  united  nations  of  the  Frankish  empire  (Salii,  Ripuarii, 
Alemanni,  Bavarians,  Burgundians,  &c.),  as  well  as 
among  the  West  Goths,  Lombards,  and  Anglo-Saxons. 
All  these  codes,  with  the  exception  of  the  Anglo-Saxon, 


51.    §  14.]  MANNERS    AND    CUSTOMS.  27 

were  drawn  up  in  Latin,  and  seem  to  have  been  the  work  (50) 
of  deliberative  councils,  or  the  result  of  compacts  made  A 
between  the  king  and  his  people.  Among  the  Eastern 
and  Western  Goths  and  Burgundians  we  find  a  statute  book 
published  by  the  king,  arid  containing  simply  Roman  laws 
(edictum  Theodoricianum,  breviarium  Alaricianum,  lex 
Romano  Burgundionum).  These  statutes,  especially  the 
lex  Salia,  are  almost  exclusively  penal.  As  a  general  rule 
none  but  serfs  could  be  punished  with  death,  or  undergo 
corporal  chastisement ;  the  freeman  was  allowed  to  com- 
pound for  his  violations  of  the  law  by  the  payment  of  a 
fine  (compositio)  ;  if  unable  to  discharge  the  penalty,  he 
became  the  slave  of  the  injured  party.  Even  murder  could  B 
be  expiated  by  the  payment  of  a  pecuniary  compensation 
(reckoned  in  solidis  or  shillings)  to  the  relations  of  the 
deceased.  Their  courts  of  justice  were  of  three  sorts. 
1.  The  Gau- Court;  held  by  the  Count,  assisted  by  Schoffen, 
or  jurymen  chosen  from  the  freemen.  2.  Palatine  courts, 
in  which  the  lord  of  an  exempt  district  (immunitas),  assisted 
by  his  dependents,  decided  questions  within  the  jurisdiction 
of  his  court.  3.  Feudal  courts,  in  which  the  feudal  lord 
settled  the  disputes  of  his  vassals,  of  whom  a  certain 
number  acted  as  his  assessors.  There  were  four  sorts  of 
proof: — 1.  Documentary  (rare).  2.  Witnesses.  3.  Thee 
oath  of  the  prosecutor  and  his  consacramentales.  4.  The 
Ordeal,  which  consisted  of  the  trial  by  fire  (red-hot  iron, 
ploughshares,  coals,  logs  of  wood,  gloves,  &c.),  the  trial 
by  boiling  or  cold  water,  and  the  judicial  combat,  or  duel 
between  the  accused  and  his  accuser. 

III.  Manners  and  Customs. 

The  advantages  which  agriculture  derived  from  the  51 
assiduous  cultivation  of  their  estates  by  the  free  proprietors, 
and  subsequently  by  the  monks,  were  in  some  degree  neu- 
tralized by  the  manner  in  which  the  land  was  parcelled  out 
into  large  farms,  and  by  the  general  employment  of  bonds- 
men. The  same  circumstances  and  the  absence  of  cities,  D 
were  also  obstacles  to  the  advancement  of  manufacturing 
industry:  commercial  enterprise  was  checked  by  numerous 
imposts  and  by  the  insecurity  of  the  roads ;  and  lastly, 
Christianity,  in  consequence  of  the  universal  and  deeply- 
rooted  depravity  and  ferocity  of  manners,  scarcely  exer- 


28  THE    MIDDLE    AGES.  [52 54.    §  15. 

(51)  cised  any  beneficial  influence  over  the  people  until  the 
A  commencement  of  the  succeeding  period. 

52  IV.  Scientific  knowledge  was  almost  exclusively 
in  the  hands  of  the  secular  clergy  and  monks.     Their 
system  of  education  comprised    the    seven  liberal  arts, 
as  they  were  called,  or  the  Trivium  (i.  e.  the  study  of 
classical  literature,  rhetoric,  and  dialectics),  and  Quadri- 
vium    (arithmetic,     geometry,    astronomy,    and    music). 
The  best  educational  establishments  were  in  England,  at 
Cambridge,  York,  and  Canterbury,  from  which  learned 
men  were  from  time  to  time  sent  out   to  enlighten  the 
neighboring  continent.     Among  these  the  most  remark- 

B  able  were  the  Venerable  Bede,  Boniface,  and  Alcuin. 
The  literature  of  this  period  contains  only  works  in  the 
Latin  language.  The  most  important,  are  Boethii  conso- 
latio  philosophise,  the  philosophical  and  historical  writings 
of  Cassiodorus,  extracts  by  Jornandes  from  the  history  of 
the  Goths  by  Cassiodorus,  Prankish  ecclesiastical  history 
by  Gregory  of  Tours,  Spanish  by  Isidorus,  and  English 
by  the  Venerable  Bede,  who  introduced  the  Christian  mode 
of  reckoning  time  into  the  West. 
V.  Art. 

53  The  transition  from  the  ancient  to  the  modern  style  of 
c  architecture,  is  seen  in  the  old  Gothic  style  among  the  Os- 
trogoths, and  in  the  tasteless  architecture  of  Lombardy, 
which  was   adopted,  with   a  mixture  of  the  Byzantine  in 
all  the  other  German  states.     First  specimens  of  Christian 
painting. 

B.  The  East. 

§  15.     TJie  Eastern  Roman  (or  Byzantine)  Empire, 
395_867. 

54  Extent  of  the  empire:    Since  the  year  395,  from 
D  the  Ionian  (and  at  a  later  period  from  the  Adriatic)  Sea  in 

the  West,  the  Tigranocerta  on  the  Tigris,  Circesium  on  the 
Euphrates  and  the  Arabian  Desert  in  the  East ;  and  from 
the  Danube  and  the  Black  Sea  in  the  North,  to  Ethiopia 
and  the  Libyan  Desert  in  the  South.  To  this  Empire  was 
added  the  kingdom  of  the  Vandals  in  534,  the  whole  of 
Italy  in  554 — 568,  and  at  a  later  period  the  Exarchate 


55.    §  15.]  HISTORY.  29 

(the  limits  of  which  became  daily  more  restricted),  and  a  (54) 
few  cities  on  the  southern  coast  of  Spain.     In  the  seventh  A 
century  the  empire  lost  all  its  Asiatic  possessions  with  the 
exception    of  Asia  Minor ;    in  the    seventh   and    eighth, 
Africa,  the  islands  of  Sardinia  and  Corsica,  Dalrnatia,  and 
the  right  bank  of  the  Lower  Danube ;   and  in  the  ninth, 
Sicily,  Candia,  and   Cyprus.      Military  division   of  the 
empire  into  twenty-nine  Themata. 

History. 

1.  Period  of  the  rise  oftheempir e — f r o m  t h e 
year  395  to  the  death  of  Justinian  in  565. 

(1.)  Arcadius  (395 — 408),  who  had  received  for  his  55 
portion  the  larger  (eastern)  half,  at  the  division  of  the  empire  B 
by  his  father  Theodosius  (com.  B.  i.  3,  §  111),  was 
governed  at  the  commencement  of  his  reign  by  a  Gaul 
named  Ruffinus,  then  by  the  Eunuch  Eutropius,  at  a  later 
period  by  Gainas  a  Goth,  and  finally  by  his  avaricious 
consort  Eudoxia.  The  Huns,  who  had  invaded  the 
Asiatic  provinces,  were  conciliated  by  the  payment  of  a 
tribute,  and  Alaric,  leader  of  the  Western  Goths,  induced 
to  withdraw  his  forces  from  Macedonia  and  Greece  by  a 
grant  of  the  prefecture  of  Eastern  Illyricum.  (2.)  His 
son  and  successor,  Theodosius  I.  (under  the  guardianship 
of  his  sister  Pulcheria),  was  twice  compelled  to  increase 
the  yearly  payment  to  the  Huns  (the  last  time  to  2100 
pounds  of  gold).  On  the  other  hand,  when  the  Byzantines  c 
and  Persians  divided  between  them  the  kingdom  of  Arme- 
nia, Theodosius  received  the  western  part  (and  of  the 
western  empire,  Pannonia,  Dalmatia,  and  Noricum).  The 
codex  Theodosianus  was  the  first  published  digest  of  laws. 
Theodosius  was  succeeded  by  (3.)  Pulcheria  and  her  para- 
mour Marcian,  who,  after  the  dissolution  of  the  Hunnish 
empire,  added  to  the  southern  Danube  provinces  several 
nations  (e.  g.  the  Eastern  Goths),  formerly  subject  to  the 
Huns.  (4.)  Leo  I.  (Macella),  the  first  emperor  crowned  D 
by  tho  Patriarch  of  Constantinople,  engaged  unsuccessfully 
in  an  expedition  against  the  Vandals  (see  §  9).  The 
Ostrogothic  Prince,  Theodoric  (who  had  been  placed  in 
his  hands  as  the  pledge  of  an  alliance  which  he  had 
purchased  from  that  nation),  was  educated  at  Constan- 
tinople, and  became  the  conqueror  of  Italy  under  the 
auspices  of  (5.)  Zeno,  the  successor  of  Leo  (comp.  §  8). 


31  THE    MIDDLE    AGES.  [56.    §  15. 

(55)  (6.)  Anastasius,  after  the  first  invasion  of  the  Bulgarians, 
A  protected  his  caoital  by  a  long  wall,  which  extended  from 
the  Black  Sea  to  the  sea  of  Marmora.  (7.)  Justin  I.,  a 
Thracian  peasant,  was  first  appointed  commander-in-chief 
of  the  body-guard,  and  then  raised  to  the  imperial  throne, 
which  he  shared  with  his  nephew. 

56      (8.)  J  ustini  an,  527 — 565,  who  became  sole  emperor 
at  the  end  of  four  months.     Theodora,  the  wife  of  this 
emperor,   a   woman   of  debauched    character,  who   had 
formerly  been  an  actress,  exercised  an  influence  which 
her  profligate  and  cruel  disposition  rendered  exceedingly 
injurious  to  the  interests  of  the  empire.     His   first   and 
greatest  work  was  the  improvement  of  the  Roman 
Code  by  (a.)  the  Codex  Justinianus  (12  B.),  a  digest  of 
Roman  law,  prepared  by  ten  distinguished  lawyers,  under 
B  the  superintendence  of  Tribonian.     This  work  was  soon 
found  defective,  and  at  the  end  of  six  years  there  appeared 
a  new  and    improved   edition,     b.    The    Institutiones,  a 
manual  of  Roman  law.     c.  The  Pandectse,  or  Digesta,  a 
collection  of  the  most  important  interpretations    and  de- 
cisions, from  the  writings  of  forty  distinguished  jurists. 
d.  The  Novelise,  or  supplement,  containing  some  laws  of 
Justinian,  and  others  of  succeeding  reigns.  The  tranquillity 
of  the  empire  was  disturbed  by  the  N  ika,  an  insurrection 
in  the  Hippodrome  at  Constantinople,  occasioned  by  the 
arrogance  of  the  blue  faction  (which  was  favored  by  the 
emperor),  and    suppressed  (in  532)  by  the  butchery  of 
c  30,000  of  the  green.    The  imperial  palace,  which  had  been 
injured,  and  the  church  of  St.  Sophia,  which  was  burnt 
in  this   insurrection,  were  both    restored    in  a    style   of 
greater  magnificence.  Having  secured  his  northern  frontier 
by  a  chain  of  more  than  eighty  fortresses,  extending  from 
the  Save  to  the  mouth  of  the  Danube,  and  the  eastern 
partly  by  entrenchments    and    alliances,  and   partly  by 
putting  an  end  (by  a  bought  peace)  to  the  Persian  war,* 
which  had  broken  out  in  the  reign  of  Justin,  Justinian  un- 
D  dertook  the  restoration  of  the  Roman  empire.     In 
pursuance  of  this  object  the  empire  of  the  Vandals  was  de- 
stroyed by  Belisarius ;  and  after  a  war,  begun  by  that  gen- 
eral and  terminated  by  Narses  at  the  end  of  eighteen  years, 

*  In  this  war,  the  Persian  general,  Narses,  went  over  to  the  By- 
zantines, and  Belisarius  gained  his  first  laurels. 


57.    §  15.]  HISTORY.  31 

the  Ostrogothic  empire,  already  weakened  by  intestine  (56) 
divisions,  became  subject  to  Justinian.  The  conquests  of  A 
Belisarius  in  Africa  and  Italy,  excited  jealousy  and  appre- 
hension in  the  mind  of  the  Persian  king  Chosroes  (or  Nushir- 
vvan),  who  renewed  the  war  (partly  at  the  instigation  of  the 
Ostrogoths),  invaded  Syria,  burnt  Antiochia,  and  was 
threatening  Palestine,  when  the  appearance  of  Belisarius 
in  the  east  compelled  him  to  retreat.  After  long  negotia- 
tions, which  were  interrupted  by  a  dispute  respecting  the 
possession  of  the  eastern  shores  of  the  Black  Sea,  peace 
was  concluded,  the  ancient  frontier  line  being  restored,  and 
Chosroes  renouncing  all  claim  to  the  disputed  territories  in 
consideration  of  an  annual  tribute.  Conquest  of  the  B 
southern  coast  of  Spain  (see  §  11).  The  constant  wars  in 
this  reign,  terminated  in  some  instances  by  a  disgraceful 
peace,  and  the  enormous  sums  expended  in  the  erection  of 
costly  buildings,  soon  exhausted  the  exchequer  which 
Anastasius  had  left  full,  and  involved  the  empire  in  debt, 
nothwithstanding  the  attempts  made  to  meet  the  expenditure 
by  the  imposition  of  oppressive  taxes,  and  the  sale  of 
public  offices  and  government  monopolies. 

II.  Period  of  the  decline  of  the  empire  from 
565  to  the  accession  of  the  Macedonian  Em- 
perors in  867. 

In  the  reign  of  Justinian's  immediate  successor  (his  57 
nephew,  Justin  II.),  began  the  conquests  of  the  Lombards  c 
in  Italy  (comp.  §  8.  IV.),  and  a  renewal  of  the  wars  with 
Persia,  which  occupied  almost  without  intermission  the 
four  succeeding  emperors,  the  last  of  whom  Heraclius 
(610 — 641),  lost  Syria,  Palestine,  Egypt,  and  Asia  Minor 
to  the  Persians,  who  were  in  the  act  of  encamping  under 
the  walls  of  his  capital,  when  the  suburbs  were  plundered 
by  the  Avars,  whose  empire  at  that  time  extended  from 
the  Volga  to  the  Saale  and  Ems — northward  to  the  Car- 
pathian mountains,  and  southward  to  the  Danube.  In  this  D 
extremity,  the  emperor  would  have  fled  to  Carthage,  but 
at  the  intercession  of  the  Patriarch  he  abandoned  his  inten- 
tion, landed  with  an  army  in  Syria,  and  after  three  cam- 
paigns, and  a  victory  at  Nineveh  (627),  recovered  the 
four  countries  which  had  been  wrested  from  him  by  the 
Persians.  Soon  afterwards,  however,  Syria,  Palestine, 
Phoenicia,  and  Egypt,  fell  into  the  hands  of  the  Ara- 


32  THE    MIDDLE    AGES.  [57.    §  15. 

(57)  bians,  and   the  southern    coast   of  Spain    into  those  of 

A  the  Visigoths.  Under  his  successors  the  limits  of  the 
empire  were  still  further  circumscribed,  in  the  west  by 
the  Lombards,  who  were  continually  enlarging  their 
Italian  dominions  at  the  expense  of  the  Exarchate  (see 
§  8.  III.),  in  the  north  by  repeated  invasions  of  the  Bul- 
garians, who  made  themselves  masters  of  Mossia,  and  in 
the  east  and  south  by  the  Arabians.  These  last  not  only 
subdued  the  islands  of  Cyprus  and  Rhodes,  Armenia,  the 
whole  northern  coast  of  Africa,  and  (in  the  ninth  century) 
Crete,  Sicily,  and  Sardinia,  but  even  ventured  to  attack 
Constantinople  itself,  which  they  besieged  every  summer 
from  670  to  678,  and  again  from  717  to  718,  but  were 

B  each  time  repulsed  by  the  Greek  fire.  Whilst  the  pro- 
vinces were  thus  falling,  one  after  another,  into  the  hands 
of  the  neighboring  powers,  the  empire  itself  was  convulsed 
by  the  disputes  of  political  and  religious  parties.  Succes- 
sive emperors  were  hurled  from  the  throne,  deprived  of 
sight,  maimed,  shut  up  in  convents,  or  put  to  death,  some- 
times through  the  intrigues  of  ambitious  consorts  and  their 
paramours,  sometimes  by  their  own  sons,  their  ministers, 
or  the  victorious  generals  of  their  armies.  The  religious 
feuds  were  for  the  most  part  occasioned  by  dogmatic 
differences,  such  for  example  as  (1.)  The  controversy  re- 
specting the  distinction  between  the  divine  and  human 
natures  of  our  Lord,  pronounced  to  be  an  orthodox  doctrine 

c  by  the  council  of  Chalcedon,  451.  This  dispute  not  only 
occasioned  the  separation  of  the  Monophysites  from  the  Ca- 
tholic church,  but  was  even  productive  of  schisms  among 
those  heretics  themselves.  An  attempt  of  the  Emperor 
Heraclius  to  reconcile  the  contending  dogmatists  by  a 
declaration  that  two  natures  were  indeed  united  in  tho 
person  of  our  Lord,  but  that  both  had  been  actuated  by 
only  one  will,  served  merely  to  augment  the  number  of 
heresies  by  the  addition  of  the  Monotheletes,  (2.)  who  were 
condemned  by  a  council  held  at  Constantinople  in  the  year 

D  680.  A  remnant  of  these  heretics  formed  the  sect  of  the 
Maronites.  (3.)  The  iconoclastic  controversy,  which 
lasted  more  than  a  hundred  years,  was  occasioned  by  a 
decree  of  the  Emperor  Leo  III.  (Isauricus),  commanding 
(in  726)  the  removal  from  the  churches  of  all  images, 
except  that  of  our  Saviour.  Notwithstanding  the  vehe- 


58,  59.  §  15.]  HISTORY.  33 

ment  opposition  of  the  monks  and  the  pope,  this  de-  (57) 
cree  was  carried  into  effect,  and  the  images  either  dashed  A 
in  pieces  or  burnt.  The  worship  of  images  having  been 
condemned  as  heretical  by  the  seventh  oecumenical  council 
(held  at  Constantinople  in  754),  their  destruction  was 
carried  on  with  augmented  zeal  by  succeeding  emperors 
until  the  reign  of  Irene,  when  it  was  interrupted  for 
awhile,  to  be  renewed  in  the  following  reign.  Their 
restoration  was  at  last  effected  by  Theodora,  the  guardian 
of  her  son  Michael  III.  The  degradation  of  the  Patri-  B 
arch  of  Constantinople  by  this  emperor,  prepared  the 
way  for  the  separation  of  the  Greek  and  Roman  churches. 
He  was  assassinated  on  account  of  his  acts  of  ferocious 
cruelty,  by  his  favorite,  Basilius  the  Macedonian,  in  the 
year  857.  (4.)  The  persecution  of  the  sect  of  the  Pauli- 
cians,  who  eventually,  with  the  aid  of  the  Arabians, 
ravaged  Asia  Minor,  and  waged  war  successfully  against 
Michael  III. 

Political  constitution,  arts,  sciences,  &c. 

1.  The  constitution  which  the  Roman  empire  had  re- 58 
ceived  from  Constantine  the  Great  (see  B.  i.  3.  §  110),  was 
preserved  in  its  integrity,  the  emperors  continuing  to  enjoy 
unlimited  power.  They  were  crowned  and  anointed  by  c 
the  Patriarch  of  Constantinople,  assumed  the  title  of 
Roman  Emperors,  and  sought  to  conceal  their  real  weak- 
ness by  the  adoption  of  sounding  titles,  a  gorgeous  costume, 
and  a  rigid  court  ceremonial.  The  senate,  it  is  true,  still 
remained,  but  without  authority  or  political  influence  ;  the 
only  deliberative  council  being  the  consistorium  principis, 
an  assembly  composed  entirely  of  imperial  favorites,  who 
were  consulted  from  time  to  time  as  occasion  required. 
In  the  reign  of  Justinian,  the  Roman  consulship  ceased  to 
exist,  even  in  name,  the  only  dates  now  employed  being 
the  years  of  the  emperor's  reign,  according  to  the  Indiction- 
Cycle  of  fifteen  years.  Political  importance  of  the  colors  D 
in  the  Hippodrome.  The  provinces  were  handed- over  to 
governors,  who  purchased  their  offices,  and  exercised 
almost  irresponsible  authority,  to  the  great  disgust  of  the 
oppressed  and  plundered  provincials. 

"2.  Language  and  Literature.  The  language  of  the  court,  59 
'ifter  its  removal  to  Constantinople,  continued  for  a  time 
i.o   be    Latin,  but   was   afterwards   a   corrupted   Greek. 
2* 


34  THE    MIDDLE    AGES.  [60,61.    §15. 

(59)  Poetry  was  confined  almost  entirely  to  the  epigram. 
A  Schools  of  the  new  Platonic  philosophy,  grammar,  and 
rhetoric,  flourished  at  Constantinople,  at  Athens,  until  the 
reign  of  Justinian,  and  at  Edessa  and  Alexandria  until  the 
Arabian  dynasty.  The  most  renowned  school  of  jurispru- 
dence was  at  Berytus  in  Phoenicia.  Medicinal  science  was 
most  successfully  cultivated  at  Alexandria.  The  writings 
of  the  Byzantine  historians  were  either  chronicles  from  the 
creation  of  the  world  to  their  own  times  (as  Syncellus),  or 
biographies  of  individual  emperors,  for  the  most  part  mere 
compilations  without  plan,  judgment,  or  taste. 

60  3.  Art.    The  establishment  of  Christianity  as  the  re- 
B  ligion  of  the  state,  and  the  removal  of  the  Roman  court  to 

Byzantium,  gave  new  life  to  art,  especially  during  the 
brilliant  reign  of  Justinian.  The  distinguishing  features 
of  ancient  Christian  architecture,  as  seen  in  its  greatest  per- 
fection  in  the  church  of  St.  Sophia,  built  by  Justinian, 
were  the  cruciform  plan,  and  the  dome  resting  on  arches, 
supported  by  massive  piles.1  Simplicity  of  taste  was 
almost  lost  amidst  a  profusion  of  marbles  of  the  most 
varied  and  brilliant  colors.  All  visible  personifications  of 
the  Deity  being  forbidden  by  the  Christian  religion,  the 
only  works  of  sculpture  were  statues  representing  emperors, 
generals,  and  statesmen,  in  their  gorgeous  robes  of  office, 
c  ornaments  for  the  altar,  and  sacred  vessels.  The  interior 
of  the  churches  was  generally  ornamented  with  mosaic  of 
the  most  brilliant  colors,  composed  of  gold  and  costly 
marbles.  The  earliest  specimens  of  Christian  sculpture 
and  painting  are  found  in  the  ninth  century,  when  images 
of  the  saints  were  first  permitted  by  the  Greek  church. 
The  modern  Greek  or  Byzantine  style  of  architecture 
found  its  way  into  the  west  as  far  as  Britain  and  the 
Moorish  settlements  in  Spain,  as  well  as  into  Arabia.  A 
knowledge  of  painting  was  also  generally  diffused  by  the 
artists  who  were  driven  from  the  east  by  the  iconoclastic 
controversy. 

61  4.   Commerce   and  Manufactures.     The   operations  of 
D  commerce  were  sorely  cramped  by  the  almost  perpetual 

wars,  barbarian  invasions,  the  insecurity  of  the  roads,  and 
oppressive  taxation   and  monopolies.     A  direct  trade  was 

[l  See  Gibbon,  chap.  xl.  §  5.J 


t>2,  63.    §  16.]  ARABIA.  35 

carried  on  with  the  shores  of  the  Mediterranean,  which  (61) 
had  been  reconquered  by  Justinian,  and  were  for  the  most  A 
part  inhabited  by  rude  and  barbarous  nations ;  whilst,  on 
the  other  hand,  the  trade  with  India  was  conducted  through 
the  intervention  of  the  Persians,  and  at  a  later  period  of  the 
Arabians.  The  situation  of  Constantinople  rendered  it  the 
principal  emporium  for  western  as  well  as  eastern  produce. 
Manufacturing  industry  was  fostered  by  the  luxury  of  a 
brilliant  court,  and  was  greatly  promoted  by  the  introduc- 
tion of  silkworms,  the  eggs  of  which  were  brought  in 
hollow  canes  from  China  to  Constantinople  by  missionaries 
in  the  reign  of  Justinian. 

5.  Manners. — The    demoralization   of  this   luxurious  62 
court  extended  to  the  great  body  of  the  people,  who  gave  B 
themselves  up  to  coarse  and  sensual  enjoyment  in  defiance 
alike  of  ecclesiastical  censures,  severe  laws,  and  the  most 
fearful  punishments. 

§  16.     The  Arabians. 
Geography  of  Arabia. 

The  peninsula  of  Arabia,  the  superficial  area  of  which  63 
is  four  times  greater  than  that  of  Germany  or  France,  c 
consists  partly  of  a  table-land  traversed  by  ranges  of  moun- 
tains, entirely  destitute  of  water,  and  forming  a  huge  sea 
of  shifting  sands,  and  partly  of  narrow  strips  of  flat  land 
along  the  sea-coast,  all  equally  barren,  with  the  exception 
of  the  south-western  portion,  which,  on  account  of  its 
fertility,  was  called  by  the  ancients  Arabia  Felix  (hod. 
Jemen).  The  inhabitants  are  partly  Bedouins,  whose  lives 
are  spent  in  wandering,  either  in  single  families  under  their 
Scheiks,  or  in  large  clans  under  Emirs,  in  search  of 
water  and  pasture,  and  partly  inhabitants  of  cities  (of  which 
the  most  celebrated  are  Mecca  and  Medina),  where  they 
maintain  themselves  by  agriculture,  trade,  and  manufac- 
tures. Before  the  time  of  Mohammed,  their  religion  was  D 
a  worship  of  the  stars.  Their  national  sanctuary,  the 
Caaba  or  temple  at  Mecca  (with  its  black  stone,  formerly 
venerated  as  divine),  was  superintended  by  the  family 
of  Haschem,  of  the  tribe  of  Koreisch.  Circumcision 
and  abstinence  from  pork,  as  among  the  Jews  and 
Egyptians. 


36  THE    MIDDLE    AGES.  [64 66.    §  16. 

,'       fj    '*S  •%  '• 

History  of  the  Arabians. 

64  The  Arabians,  who  trace  their  origin  to  Ishmael,  the  son 
A  of  Abraham  and  Hagar,  have  always  retained  their  inde- 
pendence, with  the  exception  of  the  inhabitants  of  Arabia 
Petraea,  which  for  a  short  time  (A.D.  106)  was  subject  to 
the  Romans. 

1.    From  Mohammed  to  the  Dynasty  of  the 
Ommaijades,  622 — 661. 

65  Mohammed  was  born  at  Mecca  in  the  year  571,  and 
B  after  the  death  of  his  parents  (who  belonged  to  the  power- 
ful tribe  of  Koreisch,  and  the  family  of  Haschem),  was 
brought  up  by  an  uncle  (Abu-Taleb).     By  a  fortunate 
marriage  with  a  rich  widow,   he  was  enabled  to  gratify 
without  restraint  his  taste  for  religious  seclusion.     One 
month  of  every  year  was  passed  in  a  cave  in  the  neighbor- 
hood  of  Mecca,  whence  he  sallied  forth  to  proclaim  himself 
the  ambassador  of  the  One  God,  by  whom,  as  he  declared, 
a  commission  had  been  granted  him  to  restore  the  religion 

c  of  Abraham.  This  doctrine,  which  at  first  was  preached 
(609)  only  to  the  members  of  his  own  family,  but  subse- 
quently promulgated  to  the  world,  was  vehemently  op- 
posed by  the  Koreischites,  whose  persecutions  at  length 
drove  him,  in  company  with  Abu-Bekr,  to  seek  an  asylum 
in  the  city  of  Medina,  July  15,  622.  From  this  flight  the 
Arabians  date  their  era  Hegira  (Hedschra).  From  Me- 
dina, where  he  assumed  the  authority  of  king,  and  married 
the  daughter  of  Abu-Bekr,  Mohammed  propagated  the 
doctrines  of  Islamism  by  the  sword.  In  the  year  629,  he 
took  the  holy  city  of  Mecca,  converted  the  Caaba  into  the 
national  sanctuary  of  the  true  believers  (Moslem),  com- 
pleted the  conquest  of  Arabia,  and  invited  the  king  of 
Persia  and  the  Byzantine  emperor  (Heraclius),to  embrace 

D  Islamism.     He  died  at  Medina,  in  632,  leaving  behind 
him  only  one  daughter,  (Fatima),  the  wife  of  Ali. 
The  four  first  caliphs,  632—661. 

66  1.    Abu-Bekr  (632 — 34),  the  father-in-law    of   tne 
prophet,  who  collected  the  sayings  of  Mohammed  into  a 
book  called  the  Koran.    His  general,  Khaled,  began  a  war 
with  Persia,  and  the  conquest  of  Syria. 


67—69.  $  16.]  ARABIA.  37 

2.  Omar  (634 — 43),  another  father-in-law  of  the  pro-  67 
phet.     His  generals  took  Damascus,  completed  the  con-  A 
quest  of  Syria,  and  made  themselves  masters  of  Palestine, 
which  was  visited  by  Omar  himself  (in  very  humble  guise) 
for   the  purpose  of  concluding    a    capitulation  with   the 
Christians  at  Jerusalem,  to  whom  he  granted  full  toleration 
on  condition  of  receiving  a  yearly  tribute.  The  conquest  of 
Phoenicia  enabled  the  Arabians  to  take  rank  as  a  maritime 
power.    The  war  with  Persia  was  prosecuted  successfully 
(victory  at  Cadesia  in  636,  and  Nohavend  in  642).     At 
the  same  time,  Amru  subdued  Egypt,  after  a  war  which 
lasted  two  years  (narrative  of  the  burning  of  the  Alexan- 
drian library,'  by  order  of  Omar,  probably  incorrect),  and 
advanced  into  Africa  as  far  as  Tripoli. 

3.  Othman  (643 — 56).  A  son-in-law  of  the  prophet.  68 
The  conquest  of  the  Persian  empire  was  completed  in  651,  B 
together  with  that  of  the  whole  of  northern  Africa,  as  far 

as  Ceuta;  Cypress  was  compelled  to  pay  tribute,  Rhodes 
taken,  and  the  fragments  of  its  famous  Colossus  sold.  The 
discontent  occasioned  by  the  avarice  and  nepotism  of 
Othman,  produced  an  insurrection  in  Medina,  which  ended 
in  his  assassination  and  the  accession  of 

4.  Ali  (656 — 661),  another  son-in-law  of  the  prophet  69 
(husband  of  Fatima),  was  placed  on  the  throne    by  the 
assassins,  but  not  generally  recognized  as  Caliph,  many 
persons  believing  that  the   murder  of  Othman  had  been 
perpetrated  at  his  instigation.     In  order  to  strengthen  his  c 
authority,  Ali  confided  the  administration  of  the  provinces 

to  friends  of  his  own ;  an  arrangement  by  no  means  ac- 
ceptable to  the  governors  actually  in  possession,  most  of 
whom,  (especially  Moawijah,  governor  of  Syria,  who 
caused  himself  to  be  proclaimed  Caliph,  and  Amru,  gover- 
nor of  Egypt),  united  to  oppose  the  usurper.  After  several 
(90)  insignificant  but  bloody  engagements,  a  conspiracy 
was  entered  into  by  three  Arabians,  to  restore  tranquillity 
by  the  murder  of  Ali,  Amru,  and  Moawijah — all  of  whom 
escaped  the  dagger  of  the  assassin  except  Ali,  whose  son, 
Hassan,  succeeded  him  on  the  throne,  but  was  compelled 
to  abdicate  in  favor  of  Moawijah. 

[l  Gibbon's  reasoning  upon  this  subject  (ch.  51),  seems  conclusive. 
Some  of  his  arguments  had  already  been  anticipated  by  the  acute- 
ness  of  Voltaire  (Esai  sur  les  Moeurs),  and  are  confirmed  by  the 
learned  researches  of  Ileeren,  Geschichte  der  Classischen  Literatur 
im  Mittehalter.] 


38  THE    MIDDLE    AGES.  [70.    §  16. 

2.  The  Ommaijad  Caliphs  661—750. 

70      Moawijah  I.,    great-grandson  of  Ommaija,  transferred 

A  the  residence  of  the  caliphs  from  Medina  to  Damascus,  and 
made  the  caliphate  hereditary.  Under  the  thirteen  caliphs 
of  this  dynasty,  the  Arabian  dominions  were  more  extensive 
than  at  any  other  period  of  their  history,  a.  Conquests  in 
the  West.  The  African  subjects  of  the  Arabians,  being 
oppressed  and  compelled  to  pay  tribute  by  the  Byzantines 
(who  still  retained  possession  of  Carthage),  applied  for  aid 
to  the  Arabians,  who  stormed  and  sacked  Carthage,  ex- 
pelled the  Byzantines  from  Africa,  extended  their  domi- 
nions to  the  Atlantic,  and  strengthened  their  authority  by 

B  the  conversion  of  the  Barbary  tribes  to  Islamism.  From 
this  province,  Musa,  on  the  invitation  of  a  West- Gothic 
chief  (Julian),  despatched  his  lieutenant  Tarek  into  Spain, 
where  he  overthrew  the  Goths,  in  a  battle  fought  at  Xerez 
de  la  Frontera  (711),  and  had  well-nigh  completed  the 
destruction  of  the  West-Gothic  empire,  when  Musa  himself 
arrived  in  Spain,  and  threw  the  conqueror  into  a  prison, 
where  he  was  treated  with  great  cruelty.  Musa  was  on 
the  eve  of  crossing  the  Pyrenees,  when  both  generals  were 
recalled  by  an  order  of  the  Caliph  (Walid).  After  along  and 
triumphal  march  from  Spain  to  Syria,  the  aged  commander- 
in-chief  was  exposed  to  the  heat  of  the  sun,  scourged, 

c  and  compelled  to  pay  a  heavy  fine.  Meanwhile,  his  son 
had  been  murdered  in  Spain,  and  his  head  forwarded  to  the 
unhappy  father.  The  Christians  in  Spain  were  permitted, 
on  paymentof  a  moderate  tribute,  to  retain  their  language, 
laws,  and  the  free  exercise  of  their  religion.  The  attempt 
of  the  Spanish  viceroy  Abderrahman  to  wrest  Gaul  from 
the  feeble  hands  of  the  Frankish  kings,  was  frustrated  by 
his  defeat  at  Tours  and  Poitiers  (comp.  §  13).  b.  In  the 
East,  the  Arabians  subdued  Armenia,  a  portion  of  Asia 
Minor,  the  countries  between  the  Black  and  Caspian  seas, 

D  and  Turkestan.  Even  in  India  they  had  acquired  possessions, 
of  no  great  extent,  nor  occupied  for  any  considerable  length 
of  time,  but  sufficiently  important  to  place  in  their  hands  the 
whole  trade  of  that  peninsula.  Two  attempts  on  Constanti- 
nople were  rendered  abortive  by  the  Greek  fire  (see  §  15). 
During  the  progress  of  these  events,  the  reigning  dynasty 
was  engaged  in  perpetual  struggles  with  the  family  of 
Haschem,  and  the  adherents  of  Ali,  as  well  as  with  the 


71,  72.    §16.]  ARABIA.  39 

rival  caliphs,  who  were  placed  on  the  throne  by  the  two  (70) 
contending  parties.     At  length,  on  the  accession  (in  750)  A 
of  Abul  Abbas,  a  great-grandson  of  Abbas,  uncle  of  the 
prophet,  the  dynasty  of  the  Ommaijades  was  swept  away 
in  a  torrent  of  blood  (600,000  of  their  adherents  having 
been  put  to  death  in  Khorassan  alone),  and  the  throne  of 
the  Abbassides  firmly  established.    Abderrahman  alone 
escaped  into  Spain,  where  he  established  the  caliphate  at 
Cordova  (comp.  §  11). 

Religion,  arts,  and  sciences,  &c. 

1.  The  creed  of  the  Arabians,  or  Islamism,  was  con- 71 
sidered  by  its  founder  merely  a  restoration  of  the  religion  B 
of  Abraham,  which,  as  he  contended,  had  been  also  pro- 
mulgated by  Moses,  and  our  Blessed  Lord,  but  grievously 
disfigured  by  their  disciples.     To  Mohammed  himself,  as 
the  last  and  greatest  of  the  prophets,  was  intrusted  the  task 
of  restoring  this  religion  to  its  original  purity.     The  Mo- 
hammedan system  (Islam),  is  partly  doctrinal  (Irnan),  and 
partly  practical  (Din).     Its  principal  articles  of  faith  are, 
the  unity  of  God,  predestination,  and  retribution  in  the 
world  to  come.     The  moral  law  enjoins  control  over  the  c 
passions,  war  against  unbelievers,  prayer  five  times  a  day, 
repeated  purifications  with  water  or  sand,  almsgiving,  fasts 
(during  the  month  of  Ramadan,  daily,  until  sunset),  absti- 
nence from  wine,  and  a  pilgrimage  to  the  Caaba.    It  allows 
polygamy,  and  permits  its  followers  to  recompense  evil 
for  evil.    The  sacred  writings  of  the  Mohammedans  are  the 
Pentateuch,  the  Psalms,  the  Gospels,  and  the  Koran,  or 
collection  of  the  prophet's  sayings,  preserved  by  Abu-Bekr, 
and  arranged  by  Othrnan.     This  work  was  speedily  fol- 
lowed by  the  Sunna,  a  collection  of  moral  precepts,  which 
many  of  the  Mohammedans  refused  to  recognize.     Hence  D 
the  two  sects  of  the  Sunnites  and  Schiites.     Conversion  to 
Mohammedanism  was  produced  not   so  much  by   argu- 
ment and  conviction,  as  by  the  sword.     All  vanquished 
nations  were  compelled  either  to  pay  tribute  or  conform 

to  the  new  religion  ;  and  slaves,  prisoners,  and  malefactors 
were  restored  to  freedom  on  declaring  their  assent  to  the 
doctrines  of  the  Koran.  These  circumstances  will  account 
for  the  rapidity  with  which  the  religion  of  the  Arabian 
impostor  was  propagated. 

2.  Political  Constitution.     The  supreme  ecclesiastical  72 


40  THE    MIDDLE    AGES.  [73,  74.    §  16. 

(72)  as  well  as  civil  authority  was  vested  in  the  caliphs.  At 
A  first  they  were  required  to  render  a  weekly  account  of  their 
administration  to  the  people,  who  were  consulted  by  them 
on  all  important  occasions ;  but  at  a  later  period  (especially 
since  the  establishment  of  an  hereditary  caliphate  by 
Moawijah)  their  power  was  completely  despotic.  The 
mode  of  life  of  the  earliest  caliphs  was  exceedingly  simple 
(Omar's  journey  to  Jerusalem),  but  they  soon  learnt  to 
imitate  the  luxury  of  the  conquered  nations,  whose  trea- 
sures supplied  them  with  the  means  of  enjoyment.  The 
lieutenants  of  the  provinces  were  invested  with  military 
as  well  as  civil  authority.  Hence  their  power,  and  at  a 
later  period  the  renunciation  of  their  allegiance  to  the 
caliphs. 

73  3.  Arts  and  Sciences.     As  early  as  the  fifth  century 
B  there  were  poetical  contests  at  the  fair  of  Mecca,  and  seven 

poems  are  still  extant  (the  Moallakat),  composed  by  authors 
whose  names  were  inscribed  in  letters  of  gold  on  the  walls 
of  the  Caaba.  The  warlike  enthusiasm  of  the  nation  and 
the  fierce  eagerness  with  which  the  earlier  caliphs  pursued 
their  plans  of  conquest,  prevented  the  cultivation  of  science, 
properly  so  called,  until  the  reign  of  the  Abbasides,  when 
the  Arabian  conquerors  learnt  to  emulate  the  learning  of 
the  Greeks.  The  golden  age  of  Arabian  architecture 
began  (about  700)  with  the  erection  of  mosques  at  Jeru- 
c  salem  and  Damascus.  Painting  and  sculpture  were  out 
of  the  question  among  a  people  whose  religion  condemned 
every  representation  of  the  human  form. 

74  4.    Trade  and  Manufactures  being  recommended  by  the 
Koran  as  employments  pleasing  to  God,  were  held  in  high 
estimation  among  the   Arabians.      The  conquest  of  the 
Persian  empire  had  placed  in  their  hands  the  commerce  of 
India.     Westward  their  maritime  trade  extended  over  the 
whole  of  the  Mediterranean  as  far  as  the  Straits  of  Gibraltar ; 
in  the  south,  they  founded  the  settlements  along  the  whole 
eastern  coast  of  Africa  to  the  borders  of  Catfreland,  and 
in  the  east  they  had  a  considerable  factory  at  Canton  in 

D  China.  The  land  traffic  was  carried  on  by  means  of  cara- 
vans, which  conveyed  merchandise  from  Egypt  into  the 
interior  of  Africa  on  the  one  side,  and  on  the  other  into 
Syria,  and  thence  into  central  Asia.  The  principal  markets 
for  the  products  of  the  extreme  west  and  east  were,  Me- 


75,  76.    §  17.]       THE    PERSIAN    EMPIRE.  41 

dina,  Mecca,  Kufa,  Bassora,  Damascus,  Bagdad,   Mosul,  (74) 
and  Madam.     Notwithstanding  the  perpetual  wars,  trade  A 
and  manufactures  of  every  description  continued  to  flourish, 
especially  on  the  shores  of  Barbary  and  Spain. 

§  17.   The  Modern  Persian  Empire,  226 — 651. 

The  boundaries  of  the  empire  founded  by  Artaxerxes  I.  75 
(Ardeschir),  the  son  of  Sassan  (see  B.  i.  2,  §  49),  varied 
at  different  times.   Under  Chosroes  I.  it  extended  from  the 
Mediterranean  to  the    Indus,  and    from  the    Jaxartes  to 
Arabia  and  Egypt,  and  under  Chosroes  II.  to  Jemen.    The 
empire  was   divided    into    four   provinces,  viz.  Assyria, 
Media,    Persia,    and   Bactriana.     The    capital    city  was  B 
Ctesiphon,  on  the  eastern  bank  of  the  Tigris,  with   the 
suburb  of  Seleucia  on  the  opposite  side,  forming  together 
Madain,  or  the  "double  city." 

The  Persians  were  engaged  in  almost  perpetual  warfare  76 
either  with  the  Turks  or  the  eastern  Roman  empire  (see 
§  1 5).  The  most  distinguished  among  the  (25)  Sassanides, 
next  to  the  founder  of  the  dynasty,  was  Chosroes  I.,  sur- 
named  Nushirvan,  or  the  Just,  a  contemporary  of  Justinian, 
who  terminated  a  war  with  the  Byzantines,  which  had  been 
inherited  by  his  predecessor,  but  subsequently  recom- 
menced hostilities  in  Syria  at  the  instigation  of  the  Ostro- 
goths. On  the  appearance,  however,  of  Belisarius  in  the  c 
east,  he  retraced  his  steps,  and  devoted  all  his  energies  to 
the  Lazic  war,  at  the  conclusion  of  which  he  renounced  his 
claims  on  Colchis,  on  condition  of  receiving  an  annual  tri- 
bute. During  the  forty-eight  years  of  his  reign  (531 — 79) 
the  prosperity  of  the  empire  was  promoted  not  so  much  by 
foreign  conquests,  as  by  the  establishment  of  domestic 
order  and  tranquillity.  The  government  of  the  four  great  D 
provinces  was  intrusted  to  four  viziers,  whose  administra- 
tion was  subjected  to  a  rigid  supervision;  an  improved 
system  of  legislation,  war,  and  finance  was  introduced; 
agricultural  enterprise  encouraged  by  protection  and  by 
the  artificial  irrigation  of  the  soil,  higher  and  elementary- 
schools  established,  learned  Greeks  entertained  at  his 
court,  and  the  most  celebrated  Greek  and  Indian  authors 
translated  into  Persian.  Destruction  of  the  empire  by 
the  Arabians,  see  §  16. 


42  THE    MIDDLE    AGES.  [77,  78.    §  18. 

C.    The  North-East  of  Europe. 
§  18.   The  Sclavonians. 

77  Until  the  beginning  of  the  fifth  century,  the  eastern 
A  neighbors  of  Germany   were  denominated   Wendes  and 

Sarmatians.  The  last  of  these  names  was  exchanged  for 
that  of  Slaves  or  Sclavonians.  Under  Hermanric,  these 
tribes  were  incorporated  into  the  Gothic  empire,  and  under 
Attila,  into  that  of  the  Huns,  and  after  the  dissolution  of 
those  kingdoms,  remained  possessors  of  the  eastern  portion 
of  Germany  (as  far  as  the  Elbe),  which  had  been  depopu- 
lated by  the  migration  of  the  Germans.  They  were  divided 
into  the  Baltic  Wendes,  who  retained  their  independence 
B  the  longest.  2.  The  Sorbes  in  central  Germany  (between 
the  Elbe  and  the  Saale),  who  were  made  tributary  to  the 
Franks.  3.  The  Slaves,  in  the  more  restricted  significa- 
tion of  the  term,  southwards  from  the  Danube  to  Illyria,  and 
westwards  to  Bavaria.  The  Slaves  were  delivered  from 
the  dominion  of  the  Avars  by  their  commander  Samo,  a 
Frank  who  had  relapsed  into  heathenism.  This  general  was 
recognized  as  king  by  most  of  the  Slavish  tribes,  from 
Dalmatia  to  the  Giant  Mountains  (Riesengebirge).  After 
his  death,  the  confederacy  of  the  Slavish  tribes  was  again 
dissolved,  and  new  empires  (e.  g.  those  of  the  Croatians  and 
Servians)  arose  from  its  ruins.  The  southern  Slaves 
remained  under  the  dominion  of  the  Lombards. 

78  A  certain  similarity  between  the  Slavish  and  Germanic 
c  tribes  appears  not  only  in  the  vigorous  structure  of  their 

bodies,  but  also  to  a  certain  extent  in  their  religion  (wor- 
ship of  nature,  without  images),  constitution  (patriarchal), 
manner  of  life  (avoidance  of  cities),  and  moral  character, 
for  example,  in  their  hospitality,  chastity,  and  fidelity  to 
the  marriage-bed.  On  the  other  hand,  we  find  traces  of 
physical  and  moral  difference  in  the  liveliness  of  the 
Slaves,  their  love  of  ornament  and  revelry,  and  the  want 
of  union  among  individual  tribes  under  a  common  head ;  in 
their  practice  of  attacking  from  an  ambuscade,  their  rapa- 
city after  a  victory,  and  the  frequent  cruelties  practised 
towards  their  prisoners  ;  the  burning  of  widows  after  the 
death  of  their  husbands,  the  alacrity  with  which  they 


79,  80.    §  19.]        NORTH-EAST    OF    EUROPE.  43 

adopted    the    customs    of  neighboring   nations  (Romans,  (78) 
Greeks,  Germans) ;  their  commercial  enterprise  at  an  early  A 
period  of  their  history,  the  navigation  of  their  rivers;   and, 
in  later  times,  their  industrious  cultivation  of  the  soil  which 
had  been  abandoned  to  their  occupation  by  the  Germans. 
The  languages  of  the  two  nations  exhibit  some  traces  of  a 
common  origin,  but  the  principles  on  which  they  are  con- 
structed are  totally  dissimilar. 

§  19.  Other  Nations  in  the  East  of  Europe. 

1.  The  Avars,  who  had  been  compelled  by  the  Turks  79 
to  evacuate  their  settlements   in  the  north  of  Circassia,  B 
ascended  the    Danube,    and   after   twice   demanding   in 
vain  an  allotment  of  land  in  the  Eastern  Roman  empire, 
took   possession  of  Dacia,  overthrew  the  empire   of  the 
Gepidse,  with  the  assistance  of  the  Lombards,  established 
themselves  in  Pannonia,  which  had  been  abandoned  by  their 
allies,  and  wrested  Dalmatia  from  the  Byzantines.     Thus, 

in  the  year  600,  their  empire  extended  from  the  Volga  to 
the  Saale  and  Ems :  but,  in  the  following  century,  its  limits 
were  gradually  circumscribed  by  the  secession  of  neigh- 
boring states, — the  Bulgarians  declared  themselves  inde- 
pendent, Dalmatia  was  wrested  from  them  by  the  Croatians 
and  Servians,  and  the  eastern  portion  of  the  empire  fell 
into  the  hands  of  the  Chazares. 

2.  The  Bulgarians. 

The  Bulgarians,  a  Tartaric   tribe,  who  had   occupied  80 
from  time  immemorial  the  shores  of  the  Volga  and  the  Ural  c 
mountains,  ascended  the  Danube,  and  about  the  end  of  the 
fifth  century  made  annual  incursions  into  the  Byzantine 
empire,  laying  waste  the  whole  of  the  country  from  the 
Ionian   Sea   to  the   suburbs  of  Constantinople.     Having 
effected  a  breach  in  the  wall  erected  by  Anastasius  (see 
§  15),  for  the  defence  of  the  Thracian  Chersonese,  they 
crossed  the  Hellespont,  and  returned  laden  with  the  spoils 
of  Asia.  The  fortresses  erected  by  Justinian  on  the  Danube, 
opposed  a  barrier  equally  feeble  to  their  destructive  pro- 
gress.    Their  deliverance  from  the  tyranny  of  the  Avars,  D 
to  whom  they  had  been  tributary  during  a  period  of  seventy 
years  (562 — 635),  was  effected  by  one  of  their  princes, 
named  Kuvrat,  who  founded  a  mighty  empire,  which  his 


44  THE    MIDDLE    AGES.  [81,  82.    §  20. 

(80)  sons  divided  among  themselves  after  his  death,  the  third 
A  receiving  for  his  portion  Bulgaria  Proper,  or  the  territory 

lying  between  the  Danube  and  the  Haenius. 
81  3.  The  Chazares(alsoaTartaric tribe)  were  masters, 
in  the  seventh  century,  of  the  whole  of  Southern  Russia, 
from  the  Volga  to  the  Dnieper,  and  were  engaged  in  almost 
perpetual  warfare  with  the  Persians,  and  the  Romans  of  the 
eastern  empire.  The  famous  Caucasian  wall  was  erected 
by  Chosroes  I.,  as  a  barrier  against  their  invasions. 


SECOND  PERIOD. 

From  the  Accession  of  the  Carlovingians  and  Abbasides  to  the  first 
Crusade,  752—1096. 

A.  The  West. 
§  20.   The  Prankish  Empire  under  the  Carlovingians. 

(752—888.) 
1.    Pepin  the  Short  (752—768) 

82  governed  the  three  united  kingdoms  of  1.  Austrasia,  which 
B  comprehended  Alemannia  or  Swabia,  Bavaria,  Thuringia, 
and  a  part  of  Friesland.  2.  Neustria.  3.  Burgundy  with 
Provence  and  Septimania.  War  in  Italy.  The  Ducatus 
Romanus  having  been  threatened  by  the  Lombards,  Pope 
Stephen  III.  (II.),  after  an  ineffectual  attempt  to  obtain 
support  from  the  eastern  emperor,  implored  the  aid  of 
Pepin,  whom  he  a  second  time  crowned  and  anointed  at 
St.  Denys,  with  his  two  sons  Charles  and  Carloman.  The 
Franks  were  required  thenceforward  to  choose  their  kings 
from  the  male  descendants  of  Pepin,  whom  the  Pope  raised 
to  the  dignity  of  a  Roman  patrician,  conferring  on  him  at 
the  same  time  the  title  of  Protector  of  the  Church,  and 
enjoining  him  to  undertake  a  crusade  against  the  Lom- 
bards, for  the  purpose  of  securing  the  Exarchate  for  the 
c  Holy  See.  In  obedience  to  these  injunctions,  Pepin  in- 
vaded Italy,  and  after  two  campaigns  compelled  the  Lom- 
bard king  (Aistulf),  to  surrender  the  whole  line  of 
Adriatic  coast  (from  Commachio  to  Ancona),  which  he 
presented  to  the  Roman  Pontiff.  Wars  with  neighboring 
nations. — The  Frieses,  who  had  assassinated  St.  Boniface, 


83 85.    §  20.]  PRANKISH    EMPIRE.  45 

were  again  subdued;  the  Saxons  (after  two  campaigns)  com-  (82) 
pellcd  to  pay  tribute;  the  Arabians  (after  the  surrender  of  A 
Narbonne)  expelled  from  Southern  Gaul  and  Aquitania 
(after  the  death  of  Duke  Waifar)  re-united  to  the  Prankish 
empire. 

2.  Charlemagne  (768—814), 

born  in  742  (on  the  2nd  April  ?),  perhaps  at  Aachen,  or  83 
Aix-la-Chapelle,  during  the  first  three  years  of  his  reign 
shared  the  throne  with  his  brother  Carloman,  by  whose 
sudden  death,  in  771,  he  became  sole  king  of  the  Franks, 
to  the  exclusion  of  his  two  nephews,  who  fled  with  their 
mother  to  the  Lombardic  court. 
The  wars  of  Charlemagne. 

a.  Conquest  of  Lombardy,   774.     In  compliance  with  84 
the  wishes  of  his  mother,  Charlemagne  had  divorced  his 
first  wife,  and  married  a  daughter  of  Desiderius,  king  of 
the  Lombards,  whom  he  soon  repudiated,  and  formed  a  third 
matrimonial  alliance  with  Hildegarde,  a  daughter  of  the 
Duke  of  Swabia.     Desiderius,  indignant  at  this  treatment,  B 
supported  the  sons  of  Carloman  in  their  claims  to  the  Frank- 
ish  throne,  and  on  the  refusal  of  the  Pope  (Hadrian  1.)  to 
crown  them,  took  possession  of  the  patrimony  of  St.  Peter. 
On   receiving  intelligence  of  this  outrage,  Charlemagne 
invaded  Italy,  besieged  Desiderius  in  Pavia,  and  entering 
Rome,  confirmed  the  grant  of  Pepin  to  the  Holy  See,  the 
possessions  of  which  were  now  augmented  by  the  addition 

of  Spoleto.  Desiderius  was  taken  prisoner  by  Charle- 
magne, who  caused  himself  to  be  proclaimed  king  of  the 
Lombards  (or  of  Italy),  in  the  year  774.  An  attempt  of 
the  Langobardic  nobles  to  reinstate  Desiderius  on  the  throne, 
was  frustrated  by  a  second  invasion  of  Italy. 

b.  Wars  with  the  Saxons,  772 — 804.     The  Saxon  na-  85 
tion  was  divided  into  Westphalia  between  the  Rhine  and  c 
Ems,  Engern  between  the  Ems  and  Weser,  Eastphalia  be- 
tween the  Weser  and  Elbe,  and  Transalbingia  beyond 
the  Elbe.     From  the  earliest  times  a  feeling  of  hostility 
seems  to  have  existed  between  the  Saxon  and  Frankish 
races,  and  ever  since  the  reign  of  Chlotar  I.,  the  Mero- 
vingians and  their  Saxon    neighbors   had  been  engaged 

in  perpetual  struggles,  with  no  more  important  result  than 
the  subjugation  of  a  few  gaus  by  the  Franks.  With 


46  THE    MIDDLE    AGES.  [86.    §'20. 

(85)  equal  obstinacy,  the  Saxons  resisted  the  introduction  of 

A  Christianity  into  their  country,  putting  the  missionaries 
to  death  and  demolishing  the  churches.  At  a  diet  held  at 
Worms,  in  772,  it  was  resolved  to  attempt  the  subjugation 
and  conversion  of  these  obstinate  unbelievers.  In  the  first 
campaign,  Charlemagne  stormed  the  Eresburg  (hod.  Stadt- 
berg  on  the  Diemel),  and  destroyed  the  Irminsul,  a  statue 
to  which  divine  honors  were  paid,  but  which  does  not 
seem  to  have  been  dedicated  exclusively  to  any  one  god. 
After  his  first  Italian  campaign  (and  a  diet  at  Diiren,  in 
775),  Charlemagne  marched  against  Wittekind  and  Alboin, 
who  had  invaded  his  kingdom  at  the  head  of  a  Saxon  army, 
stormed  their  fortress  of  Sigiburg  (at  the  confluence  of  the 
Ruhr  and  Lenne,  and  compelled  them  to  give  hostages. 
During  his  second  campaign  in  Italy,  and  an  expedition 
into  Spain,  the  Saxons  again  advanced  to  Deutz  on  the 

B  Rhine,  but  were  driven  back  by  Charlemagne,  who  sub- 
dued their  country  as  far  as  the  Elbe.  Charlemagne  now 
ventured  to  send  detachments  of  Saxons  with  two  Prankish 
armies  against  the  Sorbes,  who  had  invaded  Thuringia, 
but  his  faithless  allies  turned  their  arms  against  their  com- 
rades, an  act  of  treachery  which  was  punished  by  the 
execution  of  4500  Saxons  at  Verden  on  the  Aller.  A 
general  insurrection  followed,  and  for  three  years  the  Saxons 
made  head  against  their  powerful  enemy.  At  length,  after 
two  indecisive  engagements  (at  Detmold  and  on  the  Hase), 
Wittekind  and  Alboin  entered  into  negotiations  with  Char- 

c  lemagne,  and  embraced  Christianity,  with  most  of  their 
followers.  No  sooner,  however,  was  Charlemagne  occu- 
pied with  the  Bavarians  and  Avares,  than  the  Saxons  again 
broke  out  into  open  rebellion.  At  last,  after  eight  cam- 
paigns (793 — 804),  Charlemagne,  with  the  assistance  of 
the  Obotrites  (in  the  country  now  called  Mecklenburg), 
after  transplanting  many  of  the  Saxons  into  other  countries, 
and  conciliating  several  of  their  most  influential  nobles  by 
grants  of  land,  succeeded  in  persuading  the  people  to  ac- 
knowledge his  authority,  and  embrace  Christianity,  without 
86  formally  concluding  a  peace.1 

D      3.    War  in  Spain(17&).  At  a  diet  held  by  Charlemagne 

[l  There  was  no  peace  concluded  at  Selz,  as  has  been  generally 
supposed.] 


87 90.    §20.]  PRANKISH    EMPIRE.  47 

at  Paderborn,on  his  return  from  his  third  campaign  against  (86) 
the  Saxons,  a  petition  for  assistance    against   the    Emir  A 
Abderrahman  was  presented   to  the  king  by  the  banished 

fovernor  of  Saragossa.  Charlemagne  immediately  entered 
pain,  and  subdued  the  whole  of  the  country  lying  between 
the  Pyrenees  and  the  Ebro,  which  was  annexed,  under  the 
name  of  the  Spanish  March,  to  the  Prankish  empire, 
but,  even  during  the  lifetime  of  Charlemagne,  was  fre- 
quently lost  and  recovered.  On  the  homeward  march,  his 
army  was  attacked  by  the  mountaineers  of  Gascony}  and 
well-nigh  annihilated  in  the  pass  of  Roncesvalles  (where 
the  renowned  Roland  lost  his  life). 

4.  War  with  the  Avars  (788— 801).     Duke  Tassilo  of  87 
Bavaria,  who  had  several  times  violated  his  oath  of  alle-  B 
giance  to  Charlemagne  at  the  instigation  of  his  wife  (a 
daughter  of   Desiderius,  king  of  Lombardy),  and    been 
overthrown  after  a  short  campaign  in  787,  again  raised  the 
standard  of  rebellion  in  conjunction  with  the  Avars,  but 
was  a  second  time  defeated,  taken  prisoner,  and  confined  in 

a  monastery.  His  dukedom  was  incorporated  into  the 
Prankish  empire.  Charlemagne  then  attacked  the  Avars 
in  their  own  country,  which  he  ravaged  as  far  as  the  Raab ; 
and,  at  a  later  period,  his  son  Pepin  was  sent  to  subdue  the 
whole  of  the  territory  from  the  Ems  to  the  Raab,  which 
was  now  denominated  the  Avaric  March. 

5.  A  war  was  carried  on  by  his  son  Charles  against  the  88 
Danes   and    Wihes,    who  had   attacked    Charlemagne's  c 
allies,   the   Obotrites.      After  the   murder  of  their  king 
Gottfried,  the  Danes  concluded  a  peace  (810),  by  which 
the    Eider    was    recognized    as    the    boundary  between 
their  country  and  that  of  the  Franks.     The  Wilzes  were 
soon  afterwards  entirely  subdued. 

In  order  to  secure  the  frontiers  of  his  empire,  which  89 
now  extended  from  the  Ebro  to  the  Raab,  and  from  Bene- 
vento  to  the  Eider,  Charlemagne  established,  especially  in 
the  east,  Margravates  (Friuli,  the  Spanish,  Avaric,  and 
Danish  Marches,  &c.) 

Restoration  of  the  Western  Roman  Empire  90 
(800).     Pope  Leo  III.,  having  been  shamefully  ill-treated  D 
by  the  opposite    party  during  a   solemn  procession,  ap- 
peared before  the  diet  at  Paderborn,  and  induced  Char- 
lemagne (who  had  already  assumed  the  office  of  protector 


48  THE    MIDDLE    AGES.  [91.    §20. 

(90)  of  the   Church,  in  his   character  of   Roman  Patrician), 

A  to  visit  Rome  and  chastise  the  offenders.  In  return  for 
the  assistance  thus  afforded,  Charlemagne  on  Christmas- 
day  in  the  year  800,  received  from  the  Pope  the  title 
of  Roman  Emperor,  and  immediately  required  from 
his  subjects  an  oath  not  merely  of  fidelity,  but  of  unquali- 
fied submission  to  his  commands.  The  new  relation  be- 
tween the  Emperor  and  Pope  was  not  that  of  a  vassal  to 
his  feudal  lord,  but  rather  the  co-existence  of  two  su- 
preme authorities,  the  spiritual  being  exercised  by 

B  the  Pope  and  the  temporal  by  the  Emperor.  This  supre- 
macy was  mutually  recognized  ;  the  Pope,  as  restorer  of 
the  western  empire,  enjoying  the  privilege  of  placing  the 
imperial  crown  on  the  head  of  the  Emperor,  to  whom  he 
administered  an  oath  of  allegiance  to  the  Holy  See  ;  whilst, 
on  the  other  hand,  no  election  of  a  Pope  was  valid  unless 
approved  and  confirmed  by  the  Emperor.  Both  parties 
pledged  themselves  to  act  in  concert,  and  support  one 
another  on  all  occasions. 

Charlemagne's  administration. 
91      a.  Ecclesiastical  and  educational  establishments.     For 

c  the  confirmation  of  the  Saxons  in  their  profession  of  Chris- 
tianity, Charlemagne  founded  eight  bishoprics  in  that 
country(Osnabriick  and  Miinsterforthe  Westphalians,  Min- 
den  and  Paderborn  for  the  Engernians  ;  Bremen,  Verden, 
and  Hildesheim  for  the  Eastphalians,  and  Halberstadt  for 
the  Thuringians).  To  each  of  these  cathedrals,  as  well 
as  to  the  monasteries,  were  annexed  schools  for  instruc- 
tion in  the  seven  liberal  arts  (see  §  14.  IV).  In  the 
establishment  of  these  seminaries,  Charlemagne  was  as- 
sisted by  his  own  tutor,  the  Anglo-Saxon  monk,  Alcuin. 

D  At  the  same  time  measures  were  adopted  for  restoring  the 
respectability  of  the  clergy,  by  procuring  for  them  a  more 
liberal  education,  introducing  among  them  the  canonical 
life  (a  chapter  of  canons  being  attached  to  each  cathedral), 
prohibiting  war  and  the  chase,  exempting  them  from  the 
jurisdiction  of  the  civil  courts,  and  appointing  them  to  the 
most  important  offices  of  state.  His  subjects  were  also 
required  to  pay  tithes  to  the  Church.  The  affection  of 
Charlemagne  for  his  mother-tongue  induced  him  to  give 
German  names  to  the  months ;  to  compile,  with  the  assist- 
ance of  Alcuin,  a  grammar  of  the  Prankish  language,  and 


92 94.    §20.]  PRANKISH    EMPIRE.  49 

to  publish  a  collection  of  old  German  heroic  ballads.     For  (91) 
the  improvement  of  church  music,  professors  of  singing  A 
were  invited  from  Rome  by  the  advice  of  Alcuin. 

b.  Legislation.     Codes  of  laws  in  the  Latin  language 
were  given  to   those   nations  (the  Frieses,  Saxons,  and  92 
Thuringians)  which  possessed  no  written  statutes  ;  whilst, 

at  the  same  time,  the  ancient  "leges"  of  the  other  tribes 
(see  §  14,  2.  c.),  especially  the  lex  Salica,  were  enlarged 
by  the  addition  of  Capitularies,  which  were  enacted  at  the 
diet,  and  thenceforth  became  the  law,  not  merely  of  those 
tribes,  but  of  the  empire  in  general.  To  facilitate  the 
execution  of  the  .laws,  the  right  of  asylum  possessed  by 
churches  was  considerably  restricted. 

c.  The  Constitution,^  all  essential  particulars,  remained  93 
the  same  as  it  had  been  under  the  Merovingians ;  the  only  B 
changes  introduced  being  such  as  were  rendered  necessary 
by  the  progress  of  civilization.     The  feudal  system  was 
more  fully  developed;   but,  in  spite  of  the  opposition  of 
Charlemagne,  many  of  the  fiefs  became  hereditary  allodes. 
The  division  of  estates  into  gaus,  under  the  presidence  of  a 
count,  who  possessed  the  right  of  administering  justice  and 
calling  out  the  army,  was  still  retained ;  and  the  officers 
of  the  court  were  the  same  as  before,  with  the  exception 

of  the  Majordomat,  which  was  now  merged  in  the  royal 
dignity.  These  officers  resided  at  the  court  of  Aachen  c 
[Aix-la-Chapelle],  or  at  Ingelheim,  and  accompanied  the 
emperor  on  his  yearly  progress  through  his  dominions. 
The  Archchaplain  (Apocrisiarius)  acted  as  the  sovereign's 
vicegerent  in  spiritual  matters,  and  the  Comes  Palatii  in 
temporal. 

Besides  the  "field  of  May,"  or  general  review  of  the  94 
army,  at  which  all  males  capable  of  bearing  arms  were 
present,  Charlemagne  held  a  second  diet  in  the  autumn, 
which  was  attended  by  the  spiritual  and  temporal  dignita- 
ries of  the  empire.  At  this  diet,  which  assembled  alter-  D 
nately  at  Worms,  Aachen,  Diiren,  Paderborn,  &c.,  questions 
of  inferior  moment  were  determined  summarily,  the  more 
important  being  reserved  for  discussion  at  the  next  field  of 
May.  For  the  purpose  of  obtaining  a  more  accurate 
knowledge  of  each  province,  Charlemagne  every  year  sent 
into  certain  districts  (legationes  or  missatica,  each  of  which 
comprised  several  counties  or  dioceses)  imperial  commis- 
3 


50  THE    MIDDLE    AGES.  [95.    §20. 

(94)  sioners  (missi  domimci),  one  of  whom  belonged  to  the  high- 

A  est  rank  of  spiritual,  and  the  other  of  temporal,  nobility. 
The  duty  of  these  commissioners  was  to  hold  visitations 
(placita),  at  which  the  assembled  ecclesiastics  and  nobility 
of  the  district  were  required  to  render  an  account  of  the 
different  branches  of  administration.  They  were  also  em- 
powered to  settle  disputes,  inspect  the  imperial  demesnes, 
inquire  into  the  condition  of  the  churches  and  monasteries, 
and  the  lives  of  the  clergy,  and  prepare  a  list  of  male  per- 
sons capable  of  bearing  arms.  Every  freeholder  who 
possessed  three  (afterwards  four)  mansi,  or  homesteads, 

B  was  required  to  serve  for  three  months  in  the  army.  Those 
who  possessed  less  than  the  above  qualification  were 
allowed  to  club  together  and  arm  one  of  their  number. 
The  militia  of  each  province  was  commanded  by  a  duke. 
A  fine  of  sixty  solidi  was  imposed  on  all  who  neglected  to 
appear  in  arms  at  the  place  of  rendezvous,  and  those  who 
were  unable  to  pay  this  penalty  were  sent  to  work  it  out 
on  the  imperial  farms.  Spiritual  persons  were  exempt 
from  military  service,  but  were  required  to  arm  their  able- 
bodied  vassals.  The  punishment  of  death  continued  to  be 

c  inflicted  on  deserters.  It  was  forbidden  to  carry  weapons 
in  time  of  peace.  The  imperial  revenues  were  derived 
from  the  following  sources :  aa,  the  (163)  crown  demesnes ; 
bb,  presents  from  his  subjects  in  the  month  of  May; 
cc,  duties;  dd,  land  and  poll  taxes;  ee,  tributes  of  depen- 
dent nations. 

95  For  the  encouragement  of  commerce,  which  had  been 
severely  crippled  by  his  numerous  wars,  Charlemagne  esta- 
blished depdts,  opened  annual  markets,  improved  the  high- 
ways, and  diminished  the  imposts. 

After  the  conclusion  of  his  war  with  the  Saxons,  the 
emperor  divided  his  dominions  among  his  three  sons, 
Charles,  Pepin,  and  Lewis,  of  whom  only  the  youngest 

D  survived  him.  At  a  diet  held  at  Aachen  in  813,  Lewis 
was  proclaimed  his  successor  in  the  imperial  and  royal 
dignities,  and  received  the  crown  from  the  hands  of  his 
father.  Pepin 's  illegitimate  son  Bernard  was  permitted  to 
hold  the  kingdom  of  Italy  as  a  fief  from  his  uncle.  On  the 
28th  January  in  the  following  year  Clarlemagne  died  at 
Aachen,  and  was  buried  in  the  cathedral  of  that  city,  which 
he  himself  had  founded. 


96,  97.    §  20.]  FRANKISH    EMPIRE.  51 

3.  Lewis  the  Pious  (814 — 840). 

Lewis,  whose  benevolence,  love  of  justice,  and  piety  96 
were,  in  a  great  measure,  neutralized  by  his  weakness  of  A 
purpose  and  ignorance  of  human  nature,  promulgated,  at  a 
diet  at  Aachen,  a  number  of  new  regulations  for  the  govern- 
ment of  spiritual  persons,  monks,  and  nuns.  In  the  year 
817  an  imperial  edict  was  issued,  dividing  the  empire 
among  his  three  sons,  Lothar  [Lothaire],  Pepin,  and  Lewis. 
Lothar  was  raised  to  the  imperial  throne  as  the  colleague  of 
his  father;  Pepin  received  Aquitania ;  and  Lewis,  Bavaria. 
Bernard  of  Italy  was  deprived  of  his  sight  for  conspiring 
against  his  uncle,  and  soon  afterwards  died.  The  crown 
of  Italy  was  then  placed  on  the  head  of  Lothar. 

Soon  afterwards  the  emperor  married  a  second  wife  97 
(Judith,  daughter  of  Count  Welf),  by  whom  he  had  B 
Charles  the  Bald.  The  settlement  of  Alemannia,  Alsace, 
and  a  part  of  Burgundy  on  this  son,  excited  the  envy  of 
his  brothers,  who  entered  into  a  conspiracy  against  their 
father,  which  was  followed  up  (after  the  compulsory  ces- 
sion of  Aquitania  by  Pepin  to  Charles)  by  a  declaration 
of  war.  Lewis  was  taken  prisoner  in  an  engagement  on 
the  plain  of  Colmar  (called  from  the  treachery  of  his 
nobles  the  "perjurers'  field"),  deprived  of  his  crown,  and 
compelled  to  do  penance  in  a  monastery  at  Soissons.  But 
the  arrogance  of  Lothar  soon  disgusted  his  brothers,  who 
replaced  their  father  on  the  throne.  The  sons  of  Pepin  c 
(who  died  before  his  father)  were  excluded  from  the  suc- 
cession, and  the  dominions  of  Lewis  divided  (by  the  advice 
of  his  wife)  among  his  surviving  children ;  Charles  the  Bald 
receiving  the  western  portion  as  far  as  the  Maas  (Meuse), 
Saone,  and  Rhone ;  Lothar  the  eastern ;  and  Lewis  only 
Bavaria. 


52 


THE    MIDDLE    AGES. 


[97.  §20. 


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98 103.    §20.]          PRANKISH    EMPIRE.  53 

The  Successors  of  Lewis  the  Pious  to  887. 

Immediately  after  the  death  of  Lewis,  a  quarrel  arose  98 
among  his  sons,  in  consequence  of  an  attempt  on  the  part  A 
of  Lothar,  as  emperor,  to  exclude  his  brothers  from  all  par- 
ticipation in  the  government.     A  battle  was  fought  in  841, 
near  the  village  of  Fonte nay  (Fontenaille),  in  Burgundy, 
in  which  Lothar  was  defeated.     The  war,  however,  con- 
tinued until  843,  when  Lothar  found  himself  compelled  to 
conclude  with  his  brothers  the  famous  Treaty  of  Ver- 
dun, by  which 

Lewis  (surnamed  the  German)  received  all  the  Frank-  99 
ish  territory  on  the  right  bank  of  the  Rhine  (with  the  ex- 
ception of  Friesland),  together  with  Spiers,  Worms,  and 
Mainz. 

Charles  the  Bald  had  all  the  western  provinces  as  100 
far  as  the  Scheld,  Maas,  Saone,  and  Rhone.  B 

Lothar  had  the  territory  eastward  of  those  rivers  to  the  101 
Alps  and  the  Rhine,  with  the   exception  of  three  cities. 
The  southern  portion  of  this  strip  of  land  was  called  Bur- 
gundy, and  the  northern  Lorraine  (Lotharii  regnum).  Italy 
and  Friesland  were  also  settled  on  him. 

The  three  new  kingdoms  were  soon  disquieted  by  intes-  102 
tine  commotions,  the  quarrels  of  their  sovereigns  with  one 
another,  and  perpetual  contests  with  a  wild  piratical  race 
called  the  Normans,  or  Northmen,  who  availed  them- 
selves of  the  distracted  condition  of  the  empire  to  make 
descents  on  the  coasts,  especially  of  western  France.  Sail-  c 
ing  in  their  light  galleys  up  the  Loire,  Garonne,  and  Rhone, 
they  sacked  the  cities  of  Rouen,  Paris,  &c.,  ravaged  the 
country,  and  overthrew  the  armies  of  Charles  the  Bald. 
Italy  was  also  visited  by  these  marauders,  as  well  as  by  the 
Arabian  pirates.  In  Germany,  the  Normans  sailed  up  the 
Elbe,  and  burnt  the  city  of  Hamburg,  but  were  beaten  back 
by  Lewis.  During  the  whole  period  of  this  prince's  reign, 
the  eastern  frontier  of  his  kingdom  was  the  scene  of  per- 
petual struggles  with  Sclavonic  tribes,  particularly  with 
the  Bohemians  and  Moravians. 

The  Emperor  Lothar  I.  at  his  death,  in  855,  had  divided  103 
his  kingdom  among  his  three  sons;  the  youngest  of  whom,  D 
Charles,  died  in  863,  leaving  his  portion  to  be  equally 
distributed  between  his  surviving  brothers,  the  Emperor 


54  THE    MIDDLE    AGES.      [104 109.    §20. 

(103)  Lewis  II.  and  Lothar  II.     After  the  death  of  this  Lothar, 
A  his  kingdom  of  Lorraine  was  seized  by  his  uncles,  Lewis 
the  German  and  Charles  the  Bald. 

104  Lewis  II.  having  died  without  male  issue,  in  875,  Charles 
the  Bald  anticipating  his  elder  brother,  Lewis  the  German, 
hastened  into  Italy,  where  he  was  crowned  king  of  that 
country  and  Roman  emperor.     On  the  death  of  Lewis  the 
German,  in  the  following  year  (876),  his  kingdom  was 
divided    among   his  three   sons;  the  youngest  of  whom, 
Charles  the  Fat,  became  sole  occupant  of  the  throne 

B  after  the  decease  of  both  his  brothers.  As  none  of  the 
descendants  of  Charles  the  Bald  survived,  after  the  death 
of  his  son  Lewis  the  Stammerer  (877 — 879),  and  two  elder 
grandsons,  with  the  exception  of  an  infant  named  Charles 
the  Simple,  little  difficulty  was  experienced  by  Charles 
the  Fat  in  reuniting  the  whole  Frankish  monarchy 
(885 — 887),  with  the  exception  of  the  Spanish  March,  the 
dukedom  of  Carinthia,  and  the  cisjuranic  kingdom  of  Bur- 
gundy (separated  in  879),  the  crown  of  which  had  been 
conferred  by  the  estates  on  Count  Boso  (of  Vienne), 
brother-in-law  of  Charles  the  Bald.  The  power  of  Charles, 
however,  was  insufficient  either  to  repress  the  intestine 
disturbances  of  his  kingdom,  or  make  head  against  the 

c  Normans,  who  burnt  Cologne,  Bonn,  arid  Treves.  His 
pusillanimity  in  consenting  to  pay  tribute,  and  abandoning 
Burgundy  to  the  Normans,  so  displeased  his  subjects,  that 
at  a  diet  held  at  Tribur,  in  887,  he  was  set  aside,  and  died 
in  the  beginning  of  the  following  year.  The  Frankish 
empire  was  then  broken  up  into  five  portions,  viz. : — 

105  1.  The  western    Frankish  empire  was  assigned 
to  Count    Otho   of  Paris,  brother-in-law    of   Lewis   the 
Stammerer. 

106  2.  Germany  to  Arnulf,  Duke  of  Carinthia,  a  natural 
D  son  of  Carloman,  and  grandson  of  Lewis  the  German. 

107  3  and  4.  Burgundy  was  divided  into  t ran sjur an ic 
and  cisjuranic;  the  former  founded  by  Rudolf  Welf,  pre- 
viously Duke  of  the  West  Franks ;  the  latter  governed, 
since  879,  by  Boso,  son-in-law  of  the  Emperor  Lewis  II. 

108  5.  In  Italy,  the   sovereignty  was   disputed    between 
Guido  of  Spoleto,  and  Berengar,  Margrave  of  Friuli. 

109  Domestic  History  (814 — 887).     Under  the  feeble 
successors  of  Charlemagne,  there  arose  a  temporal  and 


109.    §20.]  PRANKISH    EMPIRE.  55 

ecclesiastical  aristocracy,  whose  influence  increased  (109) 
in  proportion  to  the  decline  of  the  imperial  authority,  and  A 
the  subjugation  of  the  common  freeholders,  most  of  whom 
were  compelled  by  violence  and  oppression  to  hold  their 
estates  as  fiefs  from  the  nobility  and  clergy.  These  usur- 
pations were  facilitated  by  the  practice,  which  daily  became 
more  general,  of  making  fiefs  hereditary,  and  by  the  right 
which  the  nobles  had  gradually  acquired  of  electing  their 
own  sovereign  on  the  extinction  of  a  dynasty,  as  well  as 
by  the  suppression  of  the  royal  commissioners.  Instead  of  B 
offering  any  effectual  opposition  to  these  encroachments, 
the  kings  were  only  too  happy,  amidst  partitions  of  the 
empire,  intestine  disputes,  and  foreign  wars,  to  conciliate 
the  favor  of  the  nobles  by  the  most  unlimited  concessions. 
Among  other  instances  of  weakness,  it  may  be  mentioned, 
that  Charles  the  Bald  granted  to  the  West  Prankish  nobility 
the  right  of  resisting  with  the  strong  hand  the  introduction 
of  any  measure  which  they  might  consider  unjust.  The 
dukedoms  which  had  been  suppressed  by  Charlemagne 
were  now  restored,  especially  in  those  provinces  which 
were  threatened  with  foreign  invasion,  where  the  authority 
of  the  king  was  inadequate  to  the  maintenance  of  peace :  in 
Thuringia,  for  instance,  against  the  Sorbes,  and  in  Saxony 
against  the  Normans,  in  the  reign  of  Lewis  the  German. 
The  influence  of  the  clergy  over  all  classes  became  daily  c 
more  confirmed,  as  the  institutions  of  the  Church  developed 
themselves ;  and  men  discovered  that  the  ecclesiastical  body 
enjoyed  exclusive  possession  of  the  learning  of  those  days. 
The  so-called  decretals  of  St.  Isidore  did  not,  it  is  true, 
establish  a  power  which  existed  in  its  fullest  extent  before 
their  publication,  but  they  served,  by  authoritatively  pro- 
claiming the  actual  supremacy  of  the  Church,  to  consolidate 
and  uphold  her  claims  to  universal  dominion.1 


[l  About  the  year  867,  a  German  deacon,  named  Bencdictus  Levita, 
published  a  collection  of  ecclesiastical  statutes,  or  "decretals,"  in  which 
the  supremacy  of  the  Pope  over  general  councils,  and  his  right  of 
appointing  bishops  and  settling  all  ecclesiastical  controversies,  were 
distinctly  asserted.  As  it  was  important  to  assign  to  these  decretals 
a  date  antecedent  to  the  empire,  Benedict  pretended  that  they  were 
the  production  of  St.  Isidore,  a  Spaniard  who  flourished  in  the 
seventh  century.  Their  genuineness  was  asserted  by  Pope  Nicho- 
las I.,  who  made  them  the  groundwork  of  the  papal  claims  to 


56  THE    MIDDLE    AGES.      [110 112.    §21,22. 

§  21.   The  East  Prankish   Empire  under  the  two  last 
Carlovingians  (887 — 911). 

110  1.  Arnulf  (887 — 899)  compelled  Guido  and  the  two 
A  kings  of  Burgundy  to  acknowledge  him  as  their  feudal 

lord,  and  thus  re-united  Italy  and  Burgundy,  as  fiefs,  to 
the  German  empire.  The  ulter  defeat  of  the  Normans 
(891)  served  to  raise  the  military  reputation  of  Arnulf, 
but  not  to  scare  them  from  their  acts  of  piracy,  in 
which  they  were  encouraged  by  the  knowledge  that  the 
Moravians  (who,  since  the  fall  of  the  Avaric  monarchy,  had 
advanced  as  far  as  Hungary)  were  now,  under  their  leader 
Zwentibold,  menacing  the  eastern  frontier  of  Germany. 
B  By  the  aid  of  the  Magyars,  or  Hungarians  (who  had 
proceeded  up  the  Danube  after  their  expulsion  from  their 
settlements  on  the  Ural  mountains  by  the  Petschenegers), 
the  Moravians  were  compelled  to  evacuate  their  country 
(from  the  Gran  to  the  Morawa),  which  was  soon  afterwards 
occupied  by  the  Magyars.  Arnulf  was  crowned  emperor, 
but  was  unable  to  settle  the  disputes  of  the  different  can- 
didates for  the  crown  of  Italy. 

111  2.  Lewis  the  Child  (900 — 911).  During  the  regency 
c  of  Archbishop  Hatto  of  Mainz,  and  Duke  Otho  of  Saxony 

(guardians  of  Lewis),  the  nobles  had  many  opportunities 
of  consolidating  their  power.  In  Bavaria  and  Alemannia 
national  dukedoms  were  established  for  the  protection  of 
those  countries  against  the  marauding  incursions  of  the 
Hungarians,  who,  since  the  overthrow  of  the  Moravian 
empire,  had  almost  every  year  invaded  Carinthia  and 
Bavaria,  and,  after  the  defeat  of  Lewis's  army,  had  ravaged 
Alemannia,  Thuringia,  and  Saxona.  The  ducal  dignity 
waS  also  re-established  about  this  time  in  Lorraine  and 
Franconia ;  so  that,  at  the  termination  of  the  Carlovingian 
dynasty,  there  were  no  less  than  six  national  dukes  in 
Germany. 

§  Empire  of  the  East   Franks  under  Conrad  I.  of 
Franconia  (911 — 918). 

112  After  the  extinction  of  the  Carlovingian  race,  an  attempt 

universal  supremacy. — Wolfgang  Menzels  Geschichte  derDeutschen  ; 
Capitel  137.] 


113.    §23.]  GERMAN    EMPIRE.  57 

was  made  by  the  nations  in  the  south  of  Germany  (the  (112) 
Alemanni  and  Bavarians)  to  establish  independent  king-  A 
doms.  On  the  other  hand,  the  Eastern  Franks  and  Saxons 
proceeded  to  the  election  of  an  emperor,  and  chose  Otho 
the  Illustrious,  duke  of  Saxony ;  but  that  prince  having 
refused  the  crown  on  account  of  his  advanced  age,  a  second 
election  took  place,  and  the  East  Prankish  Duke  Conrad 
was  chosen  on  his  recommendation,  the  Alemanni  and 
Bavarians  acquiescing  in  the  choice.  Lorraine,  on  the 
other  hand,  became  a  province  of  the  West  Prankish  em- 
pire. During  the  whole  of  his  reign,  Conrad  was  occupied  B 
in  fruitless  attempts  to  render  the  vassals,  especially  the 
dukes,  subject  to  his  authority  ;  the  provinces  being  left  in 
the  mean  time  to  defend  themselves,  as  best  they  might, 
against  repeated  invasions  of  the  Normans.  Lorraine  con- 
tinued to  be  a  dependency  of  the  West  Prankish  empire. 
The  Duke  of  Bavaria,  after  sustaining  a  defeat,  went  over 
to  the  Hungarians,  hoping  with  their  assistance  to  maintain 
his  independence.  Henry,  son  of  Otho  the  Illustrious, 
not  only  held  possession  of  all  his  father's  fiefs,  but  even 
established  his  right  to  the  independent  duchies  of  Saxony 
and  Thuringia.  On  his  deathbed  Conrad  recommended  c 
Henry  as  his  successor.  There  were  now  four  German 
dukedoms,  viz.,  Eastern  Franconia,  Saxony,  Swabia,  and 
Bavaria. 

§  23.   The  German  Empire  under  kings  of  the  house  of 
Saxony  (919—1024). 

1.  Henry  I.,  surnamed  the  Fowler  (919 — 936),  113 
quickly  carried  into  effect  the  plans  of  his  predecessor, 
subduing  the  Duke  of  Alemannia,  who  had  availed  him- 
self of  the  change  of  sovereigns  to  declare  his  country 
independent,  as  well  as  the  Duke  of  Bavaria  (who  had 
returned  from  Hungary),  and  re- uniting  Lorraine  to  the 
empire.  An  armistice  for  nine  years  was  granted  by  the  D 
Hungarians  in  return  for  the  restoration  to  liberty  of 
one  of  their  princes,  who  had  been  taken  prisoner  in 
Hungary,  the  Germans  engaging  to  pay  an  annual  tribute 
during  the  whole  of  that  period.  This  breathing  time 
was  employed  by  Henry  in  placing  the  army  on  a  more 
efficient  footing,  building  strongholds  (Merseburg,  Meissen, 
Quedlinburg,  Nordhausen,  Goslar — hence  his  surname  of 
3* 


58  THE  MIDDLE  AGES.        [114.  §23. 

(113)  the  "City-builder"),  establishing  an  order  of  knighthood, 
A  and  restoring  the  military  games  (the  origin  of  tourna- 
ments). At  the  same  time  the  army  was  exercised  in 
warfare  :  1.  Against  the  Sclavonians  from  the  Elbe  to  the 
Baltic.  The  conquest  of  these  tribes  enabled  him  to  ex- 
tend the  boundaries  of  the  empire  from  the  Elbe  to  the 
Middle  Oder.  2.  Against  the  Normans,  who  were  com- 
pelled to  evacuate  their  territory  from  the  Eider  to  Schles- 
wig.  Three  Margravates  were  established  for  the  defence 
of  the  frontiers,  viz. :  a.  North  Saxony,  against  the  Wilzes ; 
b.  Meissen,  against  the  Sclavonians ;  c.  Schleswig,  against 
B  the  Normans.  Having  completed  his  preparations,  Henry 
refused  the  further  payment  of  tribute,  and  when  the  Hun- 
garians invaded  Thuringia,  overthrew  them  at  Merseburg, 
in  the  year  933.  He  was  succeeded  by  his  second  son, 

2.  Otho  I.  (surnamed  the  Great), 

114  the  first  king  elected  by  the  common  suffrages  of  the  five 
principal  nations.  From  this  time  the  ceremony  of  coro- 
nation was  always  performed  at  Aachen  [Aix-la-Chapelle]. 
The  first  years  of  his  reign  were  passed  in  disputes  with  the 
Dukes  of  Bohemia,  Bavaria,  Franconia.  and  Lorraine,  who 
had  formed  a  confederacy  with  Otho's  discontented  brothers 
Tankmar  and  Henry,  and  even  with  Lewis  IV.,  king  of 

c  France.  After  the  termination  of  this  contest,  an  attempt 
was  made  by  Otho  to  diminish  the  influence  of  the  dukes 
by  the  establishment  in  each  province  of  a  Count  Palatine, 
or  imperial  lieutenant ;  his  own  authority  being  at  the  same 
time  strengthened  by  the  elevation  of  four  of  his  relations 
to  the  dukedom.  His  friend  Herman  Billing  was  invested 
with  Otho's  own  dukedom  of  Saxony,  in  return  for  his 
services  in  putting  an  end  to  the  Bohemian  war.  The 

D  feudal  supremacy  of  the  emperor  over  the  united  (since 
933)  kingdoms  of  Burgundy,  which  had  been  in  abeyance 
since  the  death  of  Arnulph,  was  re-established;  and  in  the 
year  933  Lorraine  was  divided  into  two  dukedoms,  viz., 
Upper  Lorraine  on  the  Moselle,  and  Lower  Lorraine  on  the 
Maas  [Meuse]  and  the  sea-coast.  The  same  care  was  be- 
stowed by  Otho  on  ecclesiastical  affairs  and  the  establish- 
ment of  schools,  as  on  the  improvement  of  the  constitution ; 
laws  were  enacted  against  simony,  the  privileges  of  the 


115.    §23.]  GERMAN    EMPIRE.  59 

Church  augmented,  and  bishoprics  established,  especially  (114) 
in  the  Sclavonic  countries,  Brandenburg  and  Havelberg. 

Foreign  Wars.  1.  The  Danes,  who  had  invaded  and  laid  115 
waste  the  Margravate  of  Schleswig  (founded  by  Henry  I.),  A 
were  compelled  (after  a  single  campaign,  in  which  Otho 
advanced  into  Jutland  as  far  as  Ottesund)  to  recognize  the 
feudal  supremacy  of  Germany,  and  embrace  Christianity. 
2.  The  Duke  of  Bohemia  (Boleslav),  who  had  a  second 
time  thrown  off  his  allegiance,  submitted  to  Otho,  became 
a  Christian,  and  founded  the  bishopric  of  Prague.  3.  First 
Italian  campaign.  Italy  had  been  severed  from  Germany 
since  the  days  of  Arnulf.  Lothar,  king  of  that  country, 
having  been  assassinated  by  Berengar  II.,  (Margrave  of 
Ivrea),  an  appeal  was  made  by  Adelaide,  widow  of  the  mur- 
dered man,  to  Otho,  who  entered  Italy,  and  having  liberated 
and  married  the  queen,  was  crowned  king  of  the  Lombards  at 
Pavia,  and  soon  afterwards  (at  Augsburg)  invested  Berengar 
with  the  sovereignty  of  Italy  as  a  fief  of  Germany.  4.  The  B 
Hungarians,  who  had  entered  Bavaria  with  an  army  of 
100,000  men,  were  totally  defeated  on  the  plain  of  the 
Lech,  and  never  again  appeared  in  Germany.  The  Chris- 
tian religion  was  soon  afterwards  generally  received  among 
them.  5.  A  victory  over  the  Wendish  Sclavonians  was 
followed  by  the  recognition,  on  the  part  of  the  Duke  of 
Poland,  of  the  feudal  supremacy  of  the  German  empire,  as 
well  as  by  the  subjugation  and  conversion  of  all  the  Scla- 
vonian  tribes  as  far  as  the  Vistula.  6.  Second  Italian 
campaign.  The  complaints  of  Berengar's  tyranny,  which 
reached  Otho  from  all  quarters,  induced  him  to  send  his 
son  Ludolf  into  Italy,  and  after  his  death  to  visit  that 
country  in  person.  Having  deposed  Berengar,  and  assumed  c 
the  iron  crown  at  Milan,  Otho  proceeded  to  Rome,  where 
he  revived  the  title  of  Emperor  of  the  West, 
which,  from  that  time  (962),  until  the  period  of  its  extinction 
in  1806,  was  always  borne  by  the  German  kings.  After 
quelling  repeated  disturbances,  and  obtaining  from  the 
Romans  a  promise  that  no  Pope  should  be  chosen  without 
his  consent,  Otho  returned  to  Germany,  where  he  endea- 
vored to  improve  the  condition  of  his  cities  by  encou- 
raging trade  and  manufactures,  and  especially  by  the 
establishment  of  markets.  7.  In  a  third  Italian  campaign 
he  wrested  from  the  Greeks  their  possessions »in  Lower 


60  THE    MIDDLE    AGES.       [116 118.    §23. 

(115)  Italy,  with  the  exception  of  Benevento  and  Capua,  which 
A  were  ceded  to  him  by  treaty ;  the  hand  of  the  Greek  princess 
Theophania  being  at  the  same  time  bestowed  on  his  son 
Otho,  who  had  already  been  crowned  king  and  emperor. 

3.  Otho  II.  (973—983). 

116  A  war  with  France  (during  which  King Lothar  surprised 
Otho  II.  in  Aachen,  but  was  driven  back  as  far  as  Paris) 
was  terminated  by  Lothar's  consenting  to  hold  Lorraine  as 
a  fief  of  the  empire.     The  refusal  of  the  Greeks  to  give  up 
certain  lands  in  Apulia  and  Calabria,  which  he  claimed  as 
the  dowry  of  his  wife,  furnished  Otho  with  an  excuse  for 
entering  Lower  Italy,  where  he  was  defeated  near  Basan- 
tello,  by  the  forces  of  the  Greeks,  assisted  by  the  Arabians, 
whom  they  had  summoned  from  Sicily  for  that  purpose. 

B  He  died  at  Rome,  in  the  midst  of  his  preparations  for  a 
fresh  campaign,  and  was  succeeded  by  his  son 

4.  Otho  III.  (983—1002), 

117  a  child  of  three  years  old,  under  the  guardianship  of  his 
mother  Theophania,  and,  after  her  death,  of  his  grandmother 
Adelaide  and  his  aunt  the  Abbess  Matilda.     Carinthia  was 
separated  from  Bavaria,  and  erected  into  a  seventh  duchy. 
An  attempt  having  been  made  by  a  party  at  Rome,  headed 
by  the  Consul  Crescentius,  to  emancipate  themselves  from 
the  German  yoke,  Otho  three  times  visited  that  city,  and, 
after  restoring  tranquillity,  assumed  the  imperial  crown, 
and  raised  a  nominee  of  his  own  to  the  papal  chair,  but, 
happily  for  Germany,  was  unable  to  carry  out  his  favorite 
plan  of  making  Rome  the  capital  of  the  German  empire. 

c  A  separate  election  of  each  province  placed  on  the  throne 
as  his  successor  a  great-grandson  of  Henry  I., 

5.  Henry  II.  (surnamed  the  Saint)  (1002—1024), 

118  the  first  king  who  was  required,  as  the  condition  of  his 
election,  to  guarantee  to  each  nation  all  the  privileges  which 
had  been  at  any  time  enjoyed  by  the  people.     During  the 
absence  of  Henry  in  Germany,  where  he  was  detained  by 
the  intrigues  of  his  enemies,  an  attempt  was  made  by  some 
of  the  provinces  to  throw  off  the  German  yoke.    Harduin, 
Margrave  of  Ivrea,  caused  himself  to  be  proclaimed  king 
of  Italy,  wjiilst  at  the  same  time  Duke  Boleslav,  of  Poland, 


119,120.    §24.]  GERMAN    EMPIRE.  61 

overran  Bohemia  and  Moravia,  and  formed  an  alliance  with  (118) 
the  discontented  German  princes.     After  defeating  Har-  A 
duin,  and  assuming  the  crown  of  Italy  (at  Pavia),  Henry 
compelled  Boleslav  to  evacuate  Bohemia,  and  recognize 
him  as  his  liege  lord  (probably  only  with  reference  to  the 
provinces  of  Lusatia  and  Silesia).     During  a  second  visit 
to  Italy,  occasioned  by  a  fresh    attempt  on  the  part  of 
Harduin  to  obtain   possession  of  that  country,  Henry  was 
solemnly  crowned  emperor;   and  soon  afterwards  the  death 
of  Harduin  terminated  for  ever  the  contests  between  the 
native  and  German  princes  for  the  possession  of  the  Italian 
crown.     A  third  Italian  campaign  was  signalized  by  the  B 
defeat  of  the  Greeks,  and  the  establishment  in  Apulia  of 
the  Norman  allies,  to  whose  co-operation  Henry  was  in 
some  measure  indebted  for  his  victory. 

§  24.   The  German  Empire  under  the  Franconian  Emperors 
(1024—1125). 

1.  Conrad  II.  (1024—1039) 

was  chosen  at  Mainz  by  the  unanimous  suffrages  of  the  119 
eight  German  dukes,  and  crowned  at  Aachen,  Milan,  and 
Rome.  The  first  act  of  his  reign  was  to  confirm  the  Nor- 
mans in  their  settlements  in  Lower  Italy.  After  the  decease 
of  Rudolph  III.,  king  of  Burgundy,  who  died  without  issue, 
that  country  was  added,  as  a  lapsed  fief,  to  the  German 
empire,  and  at  the  same  time  the  supremacy  of  Germany 
over  Poland  and  Bohemia  was  re-established.  On  the  c 
other  hand,  the  March  of  Schleswig,  which  was  no  longer 
of  any  value  as  a  barrier  against  the  Normans,  was  ceded 
by  Conrad  to  Canute,  the  king  of  Denmark,  Norway,  and 
England :  and  thus  the  Eider  became  again  the  northern 
boundary  of  the  German  empire.  During  his  second  visit 
to  Italy,  Conrad  passed  a  law  by  which  the  smaller  fiefs 
were  made  hereditary  both  in  Germany  and  Italy.  His 
family  influence  was  extended  by  the  nomination  of  four 
members  of  the  royal  house  to  the  vacant  dukedoms  of 
Bavaria,  Swabia,  Franconia,  and  Carinthia. 

2.  Henry  III.  (1039—1056). 

The  first  act  of  Henry's  administration  was  to  consoli-  120 
date  the  family  influence  of  which  his  father  had  laid  D 
the  foundation.     By  retaining  the  dukedoms  of  Bavaria 
and  Swabia,  which  he  had  held  before  his  elevation  to  the 


62  THE  MIDDLE  AGES.        [121.  §24. 

(120)  throne,  and  allowing  those  of  Carinthia  and  Franconia  to 

A  remain  vacant,  he  established  the  imperial  authority,  with- 
out the  intervention  of  any  secondary  power,  over  the  whole 
of  Southern  Germany,  as  well  as  Italy  and  Burgundy.  At 
the  same  time  Bretislav,  duke  of  Bohemia,  who  had  in- 
vaded Poland,  was  reduced  to  submission,  and  the  feudal 
sovereignty  over  Hungary  insured  for  a  season  (1045 — 
1063)  by  the  restoration  of  Peter,  the  exiled  sovereign  of 
that  country.  At  this  period  the  German  empire  com- 
prised three  kingdoms  (Italy,  Burgundy,  and  Hungary); 
six  German  dukedoms  (Alemannia,  Bavaria,  Franconia, 
Saxony,  Upper  and  Lower  Lorraine) ;  and  three  Sclavo- 

B  nian  (Bohemia  with  Moravia,  Poland,  and  Carinthia).  For 
the  better  maintenance  of  peace  in  Alemannia,  Bavaria,  and 
Carinthia,  dukes  were  re-established  in  those  countries,  but 
the  dignity  was  never  conferred  on  a  native,  and  its  pos- 
sessor was  entirely  dependent  on  the  imperial  crown. 
Franconia  was  already  considered  the  hereditary  property 
of  the  royal  house.  Introduction  into  Germany  of  the 
"Truce  of  God"  (treuga  Dei),  by  which  all  quarrels  were 
suspended  from  Wednesday  evening  to  Monday  morning, 
as  well  as  during  the  seasons  of  Lent  and  Advent. 
121  Henry's  next  project  was  the  reformation  of  the 
Church,  especially  in  Germany,  with  reference  especially 
to  its  two  most  glaring  abuses, — simony,  or  the  sale  of 
benefices,  and  the  immoral  lives  of  the  clergy.  As  it  was 
desirable  that  these  reforms  should  emanate  from  the  pope 
himself,  Henry  endeavored  to  re-establish  unity  in  the 
Church,  by  setting  aside  three  rival  pontiffs,  and  raising  a 

c  German  (Clement  II.)  to  the  papal  throne.  In  return  for 
these  services  the  new  pope  placed  the  imperial  crown  on  the 
head  of  Henry,  and  entered  into  a  solemn  engagement  that 
thenceforth  no  election  of  a  pope  should  be  considered 
valid  unless  confirmed  by  the  emperor.  Stringent  laws 
against  the  luxury  of  the  clergy,  and  against  simony,  were 
enacted  by  Henry  and  four  popes,  who  were  successively 
elevated  by  him  to  the  throne  of  St.  Peter;  whilst,  on  the 
other  hand,  all  his  plans  for  subjecting  the  Church  to  the 
temporal  power  were  cautiously  but  effectually  resisted  by 

D  the  papal  chancellor,  Hildebrand.  The  Normans  were 
confirmed  by  Henry  in  the  possession  of  their  conquests 
in  Apulia  and  Calabria,  which  they  were  afterwards  con- 
tent to  hold  as  vassals  of  the  see  of  Rome. 


122,  123.    §  24.]          GERMAN    EMPIRE.  63 

3.  Henry  IV.  (1056—1106), 

a  child  of  six  years  old,  succeeded  his  father,  under  the  122 
guardianship  of  his  mother  the  empress  Agnes.  The  ad-  A 
ministration  of  the  kingdom,  which  had  been  usurped  by 
Hanno,  archbishop  of  Cologne,  who  had  secured  the  person 
of  the  young  king,  was  wrested  from  his  grasp  by  Adalbert, 
archbishop  of  Bremen,  whose  insolence  at  last  so  irritated 
the  nobles  of  Germany,  that,  at  a  diet  held  at  Tribur,  they 
offered  Henry  the  choice  either  of  renouncing  his  favorite 
or  resigning  the  crown.  Adalbert  was  banished  in  conse- 
quence of  these  threats,  but  at  the  end  of  three  years  he  re- 
appeared at  the  imperial  court,  and  endeavored  to  annihilate 
the  party  of  his  opponents.  Otho,  duke  of  Bavaria,  was  B 
falsely  accused  of  high  treason  and  deprived  of  his  dukedom 
(which  was  conferred  on  his  son-in-law  We  If  [Guelph], 
founder  of  the  junior  Welfic  [Guelphic]  line;  and  his  ally 
Magnus,  son  of  the  Duke  of  Saxony,  was  thrown  into  prison. 
After  the  death  of  Adalbert  in  1072,  Hanno  again  resumed 
the  reins,  which  the  infirmities  of  old  age  compelled  him  to 
resign  at  the  end  of  a  year.  Being  now  left  to  himself  and  c 
his  own  evil  passions,  Henry  committed  the  most  capricious 
excesses,  conferring  dukedoms  and  bishoprics  on  his  un- 
worthy favorites,  and  endeavoring  to  render  Saxony 
immediately  subject  to  the  imperial  crown.  With  this  view 
fortresses  were  built,  and  garrisons  distributed  over  the 
whole  country ;  and  Magnus,  who  had  been  elected  duke 
on  the  death  of  his  father,  was  still  detained  a  prisoner. 

War  with  the  Saxons  (1073 — 1075). 

The  oppressive  administration  of  the  king,  the  insolence  123 
with  which  he  treated  the  assembled  nobles  of  Saxony,  and  D 
the  lawless  proceedings  of  the  royal  garrisons,  so  irritated  the 
Saxons,  that  an  insurrection  at  length  broke  out,  and  60,000 
men  appeared  before  Goslar,  where  Henry  was  at  that  time 
residing.  In  the  extremity  of  his  terror  Henry  fled  to  Harz- 
burg,  and  thence  to  Worms,  where  he  was  received  with 
every  mark  of  respect  by  the  citizens,  notwithstanding  the 
opposition  of  their  bishop.  A  peace  was  concluded  at  Gerstun- 
gen,  the  chief  condition  of  which  was,  that  all  Henry's  for- 
tresses in  Saxony  should  be  levelled  with  the  ground.  This 
peace  the  princes  of  Upper  Germany  and  the  Rhineland  re- 
fused to  ratify;  and  Henry  in  consequence  again  took  the  field, 
and  overthrew  the  Saxons  at  Hohenburg  on  the  Unstrut. 


04  THE  MIDDLE  AGES.         [124.  §24. 

Contest  between  Gregory  VII.  and  the  princes 
of  Germany  (1073—1085).  ' 
124      As  archdeacon  and  chancellor  of  five  successive  popes, 

A  Hildebrand  had  been  gradually  preparing  the  way  for  the 
development  of  his  mighty  project  of  rendering  the  Church 
independent  of  the  State,  and  using  the  authority  thus  acquired 
for  the  improvement  and  reformation  of  the  Church  itself.1 

B  With  this  view  he  had,  as  early  as  the  year  1059,  persuaded  a 
council  held  in  the  church  of  St.  John  Lateran,  to  pass  a  reso- 
lution that  thenceforth  the  pope  should  beelected  by  acollege 
of  cardinals,  and  Accepted  by  the  rest  of  the  clergy  and  the 
Roman  people ;  the  emperor's  right  of  confirming  their  choice 
being  conferred  on  him,  after  each  election,  by  the  pope  him- 
self. As  the  most  effectual  mode  of  carrying  this  decree  into 
effect,  the  pope  conferred  the  title  of  Duke  on  the  Norman 
prince  Robert  Guiscard,  together  with  the  fiefs  of  Apulia  and 
Calabria,  and  invested  him,  by  anticipation,  with  the  sove- 

c  reignty  of  the  still  unconquered  island  of  Sicily.  In  return 
for  these  benefits,  Guiscard  solemnly  pledged  himself  to 
secure  freedom  of  election  to  the  college  of  cardinals.  In 
the  year  1073  Hildebrand  himself  became  pope,  and  by  way 
of  protest  against  the  illegal  removal  of  Gregory  VI.  by  the 
Emperor  Henry  III.  assumed  the  title  of  Gregory  VII.  In 
order  fully  to  establish  the  independence  of  the  clergy,  Gre- 
gory renewed  the  laws  against  the  marriage  of  spiritual 
persons  and  against  simony,  forbidding  bishops  and  abbots  to 
receive  investiture  (i.  e.  the  ring  and  staff,  which  were  in 
most  instances  purchased  simoniacally)  from  the  hands  of 

D  temporal  sovereigns.  Henry,  who  still  continued  this  practice 
in  defiance  of  the  pope's  prohibition,  was  summoned  to  plead 
before  a  synod  at  Rome ;  but,  instead  of  obeying  the  mandate, 
he  immediately  assembled  (at  Worms,  in  1076)  a  council  of 
German  and  Lombard  bishops,  who  deposed  Gregory  from 
the  popedom.  On  receiving  intelligence  of  this  bold  pro- 
ceeding, Gregory  pronounced  sentence  of  excommunication 
against  the  emperor,  and  absolved  all  his  subjects  from  their 

1  ["  The  object  of  Gregory  VII.  in  attempting  to  redress  those  more 
flagrant  abuses  which  for  two  centuries  had  deformed  the  face  of  the 
Latin  Church,  is  not  incapable,  perhaps,  of  vindication,  though  no 
sufficient  apology  can  be  offered  for  the  means  he  employed.  But  the 
disinterested  love  of  reformation,  to  which  candor  might  ascribe  the 
condition  against  investitures,  is  belied  by  the  general  tenor  of  his  con- 
duct, exhibiting  an  arrogance  without  parallel,  and  an  ambition  that 
grasped  at  universal  arid  unlimited  monarchy." — /fa//a»i,vol.ii.p.270.j 


125.    §  24.]  GERMAN    EMPIRE.  05 

oath  of  allegiance.  An  attempt  was  now  made  by  Henry  (124) 
to  place  Pope  Gregory  under  the  ban  of  the  empire  ;  but  a  A 
meeting  of  German  princes  at  Tribur,  for  the  purpose  of 
electing  a  new  emperor,  so  alarmed  him,  that  he  crossed 
the  Alps  in  the  winter  of  1077,  and  after  three  days  of 
humiliation  in  the  castle  of  Canossa,  obtained  from  Gregory 
the  reversal  of  the  sentence  of  excommunication  ;  he,  on  his 
part,  engaging  to  exercise  none  of  the  functions  of  royalty, 
until  a  diet  of  the  empire  should  decide  whether  he  might 
continue  to  wear  the  crown  of  Germany  or  not.  During  B 
Henry's  absence  the  nobles  had  chosen  in  his  room  Duke 
Rudolph  of  Swabia,  who  pledged  himself  not  to  inter- 
fere  in  the  election  of  bishops,  and  agreed  that  thenceforward 
the  king's  son  should  succeed  to  the  throne  only  in  virtue 
of  his  election,  and  not  by  hereditary  right.  After  two  in- 
decisive engagements  (at  Melrichstadt  near  Fulda,  and 
Flarcheim  near  Muhlhausen)  between  Rudolph  and  Henry, 
the  latter  was  again  excommunicated  by  the  pope,  and  in 
return  deposed  Gregory,  and  placed  the  Archbishop  of 
Ravenna  (Clement  III.)  on  the  papal  throne.  In  a  third 
battle  (on  the  Elster),  Rudolph  was  mortally  -wounded  by 
Duke  Godfrey  of  Bouillon.  Henry  now  left  the  prosecu-  c 
tion  of  the  war  in  Germany  to  Frederic  of  Hohenstaufen 
(on  whom  he  had  conferred  the  dukedom  of  Swabia,  void 
by  the  elevation  of  Rudolph  to  the  throne),  and  marching 
into  Italy,  took  Rome  after  a  siege  of  three  years,  and  re- 
ceived the  imperial  crown  from  the  hands  of  Clement  III. 
Gregory,  who  had  taken  refuge  in  the  castle  of  St.  Angelo, 
was  released  by  Robert  Guiscard,  and  immediately  fled  to 
Monte  Cassino,  and  subsequently  to  Salerno,  where  he  died 
in  1085,  after  again  pronouncing  sentence  of  excommuni- 
cation against  Henry.  During  Henry's  absence  the  Saxons  D 
and  Swabians  had  elected  Count  Herman  ofLuxem- 
burg  (1081 — 1088),  who  obtained  one  victory  over  Henry 
(at  Bleichfield  near  Wurtzburg  in  1086),  and  soon  after- 
wards resigned  his  crown. 

Rebellion  of  the  sons  of  Henry  IV.  against 
their  father  (1093—1105). 

Henry's   eldest   son   Conrad,  who  had   already   been  125 
crowned  as  his  successor  in  Germany,  raised  the  standard 
of  rebellion  against  his  father,  and  assumed  the  crown  of 


66  THE  MIDDLE  AGES.        [126.  §  24. 

125)  Italy  at  the  instigation  of  the  adversaries  of  Clement  III., 
A  who  had  elevated  Urban  II.  to  the  papal  throne.  For  this 
act  of  treason  Conrad  was  deprived  of  the  succession  by 
sentence  of  a  diet  assembled  at  Cologne,  and  the  crown 
secured  to  his  brother  Henry,  who  was  required  to  pro- 
mise that  he  would  not  claim  the  sovereign  authority 
during  the  lifetime  of  his  father.  Henry,  however,  soon 
violated  his  engagement,  and  headed  an  insurrection  under 
the  auspices  of  Pope  Pascal  II.,  who  had  renewed  the  bull 
of  excommunication  against  Henry  IV.  on  learning  that 
the  emperor  was  making  preparations  for  the  election  of  an 
B  anti-pope.  Although  his  personal  liberty  had  been  three 
times  guaranteed  by  his  son,  Henry  was  seized  and  com- 
pelled  to  sign  his  abdication  at  Ingelheim.  Thence  he  fled 
to  Liege,  where  he  died  in  the  year  1106.  His  body  was 
afterwards  disinterred,  and  removed  to  Spiers,  where  it  was 
buried  on  the  removal  of  the  ban  of  excommunication  in 
1111. 

4.  Henry  V.  (1106—1125) 

126  had  a  twofold  object  in  view:  1.  The  restoration  of 
the  royal  authority,  which  had  fallen  into  contempt; 
2.  The  term  in  at  ion  oft  he  disputes  with  the  pope 
respecting  investiture,  which  had  been  revived  by  a 

c  fresh  decree  of  Pascal  II.  The  first  of  these  objects  was 
promoted  by  the  re-assertion  of  the  almost  obsolete  claims 
of  the  German  king  to  feudal  supremacy  over  Bohemia 
and  Poland,  both  of  which  countries  were  again  compelled 
to  pay  tribute.  A  proposal  of  the  pope,  that  the  king 
should  renounce  the  right  of  investiture,  on  condition  of 
the  bishops  restoring  to  the  empire  all  the  fiefs  which  had 
belonged  to  it  since  the  days  of  Charlemagne,  having  been 
generally  resisted  by  the  German  clergy,  Henry  seized  the 
person  of  the  pope,  and  compelled  him  to  renounce  his  own 
claim  to  the  right  of  investiture,  and  place  the  imperial 

D  crown  on  the  head  of  his  adversary.  No  sooner,  however, 
had  he  quitted  Italy,  than  the  pope  annulled  the  decree,  on 
the  ground  of  its  having  been  obtained  by  intimidation,  and 
pronounced  the  ban  of  excommunication  against  Henry, 
which  was  renewed  by  the  two  succeeding  popes.  At 
length  the  contest,  which  had  lasted  fifty  years,  was  ter- 
minated by  the  conclusion,  in  the  year  1122,  of  the  Con- 


127,   128.    §24.]  GERMAN    EMPIRE.  67 

cordat  of  Worms,  in  which  Henry,  whose  kingdom  was  (126) 
disquieted  by  the  insurrections  of  his  nobles,  agreed  to  A 
renounce  the  right  of  investiture  with  the  ring  and  staff, 
retaining  only  the  sceptre;  the  pope,  on  his  part,  consent- 
ing that  the  election  of  bishops  and  abbots  should  take 
place  in  the  imperial  presence,  and  that,  in  the  event  of  a 
disputed  election,  the  question  should  be  decided  by  the 
emperor,  the  archbishop  and  provincial  bishops  acting  as 
his  assessors. 

Changes  in  the  constitution  during  the  Saxon  and 
Franconian  period. 

The  Monarchy.  With  the  extinction  of  the  Carlovingian  127 
line  disappeared  also  the  practice  of  dividing  the  kingdom  B 
among  sons  ;  but  the  hereditary  right  of  succession  was  in 
some  sort  retained  ;  inasmuch  as  the  heir  was  invariably 
chosen  by  the  electors  as  long  as  any  member  of  the  family 
survived.  The  election  (from  the  same  dynasty),  and  at  a 
later  period  the  coronation  of  the  successor  to  the  throne, 
took  place  during  the  lifetime  of  the  reigning  monarch. 
Whilst  the  officers  appointed  by  the  king  were  acquiring 
the  right  of  hereditary  succession,  the  monarchy  itself  was 
gradually  becoming  elective  ;  and  the  legality  of  this  mode 
of  proceeding  was  at  length  formally  asserted  at  the  election 
of  Rudolph  of  Swabia.  The  limits  of  the  royal  authority  c 
were  not  defined  by  statute,  its  greater  or  less  extent 
depending  principally  on  the  family  or  personal  influence 
of  the  sovereign. 

The  Dukes,  who  had  been  restricted  by  Charlemagne  128 
to  the  duty  of  leading  the  people  in  time  of  war,  for 
which  they  were  originally  appointed,  extended  their 
sphere  of  action,  after  his  death,  by  assuming  the  functions 
of  the  suppressed  royal  missi  or  commissioners,  especially 
as  regarded  the  presidency  in  courts  of  justice  and  pro- 
vincial assemblies.  Thus  they  acquired  no  inconsiderable  D 
influence  in  the  election  of  kings ;  whilst,  on  the  other 
hand,  their  authority  was  crippled  by  the  rising  power  of 
the  cities,  and  the  establishment  of  principalities  under 
Margraves,  Landgraves,  &c.  They  were  nominated  by 
the  king,  but  could  only  be  removed  for  scandalous 
offences,  and  with  the  consent  of  the  diet.  Under  Henry 
IV .  most  of  the  dukedoms  became  hereditary. 


68  THE    MIDDLE    AGES.      [129—133.    §25. 

129  The  Margraves,  the  number  of  whom  was  increased  in 
A  the  reign  of  Henry  I.  by  conquests  in  the  east,  remained 

almost  entirely  independent  of  the  dukes,  whose  military 
power  they  possessed  in  conjunction  with  the  judicial 
authority  of  the  counts. 

130  The  Counts   Palatine  were    appointed    partly  for  the 
superintendence  of  single  palaces  or  fortresses  with  their 
districts,  and  partly  for  the  government  of  entire  provinces, 
in  which,  as  the  king's  lieutenants,  they  watched  over  the 
administration  of  the  law.     The  most  important  among 
them  was  the  Count  Palatine  of  the  Rhine. 

131  The  Counties  were  all  hereditary  under  the  Franconian 
B  princes.     The  most  important  duty  of  the  count  was  the 

administration  of  justice. 


§  25.  Italy  (888—1125). 
A.    The  kingdom  of  Italy, 

132  comprising  upper  and  central  Italy,  was  governed  1)  by 
kings  of  its  own  until  the  year  961.     After  the  death  of 
Arnulf,  whose  claims  to  the  Italian  orown  could  only  be 
supported  as  long  as  he  remained  in  Italy,  fresh  disputes 
arose  between  Friuli  and  Spoleto  ;  and  until  the  reign  of 
Otho  I.,  who  re-united  Italy  to  Germany  in  961  (see  §  78), 
each  king  had  to  contest  the  possession  of  the  crown  with 

c  a  rival  claimant.  At  the  same  time  the  country  was 
ravaged  by  the  Hungarians,  whose  assistance  was  invoked 
sometimes  by  one  party,  and  sometimes  by  the  other. 

133  2)  by  German  kings,  who  remained  in  undisturbed  pos- 
session of  the  Italian  throne,  with  the  exception  of  a  fruit- 
less attempt  on  the  part  of  the  Margrave  Harduin  of  Ivrea 
(see  §  80)  to  depose  Henry  II.     From  the  time  of  Otho 
I.,  Italy  seems  to  have  been  split  into  a  number  of  fiefs, 
some  of  them  spiritual    (in  which  episcopal  vicecomites 
exercised   the   functions  of   counts),  and  some  temporal 

D  (under  counts  and  margraves).  Under  the  Othos,  all  the 
privileges  which  had  before  belonged  to  the  kings  (the 
right  of  imposing  duties,  of  coining  money,  establishing 
markets,  &c.,  were  gradually  conferred  on  Italian  sub- 
jects, principally  on  the  priesthood  ;  but  in  order  to  pre- 
vent the  great  feudal  lords  from  becoming  too  powerful, 


134,  135.  §25.]  ITALY.  69 

the  inferior  fiefs  were  made  hereditary  by  a  constitution  of  (133) 
the  Emperor  Conrad,  promulgated  on  the  plains  of  Ron-  A 
caglia  in  1038 ;   and  a  law  was  at  the  same  time   passed, 
securing  to  every  man  the  right  of  being  tried  by  his  peers. 
During  the  decline  of  the  imperial  authority,  consequent  on 
the  disputes  of  Henry  IV.  and  V.  with  the  Church,  the 
Lombard  cities  repudiated  the  government  of  the  emperor's 
lieutenants,  and  formed  themselves  into  republics,  under 
consuls  and  magistrates  of  their  own,  the  German  king  still 
retaining  his  title  of  King  of  Italy. 

B.    Venice. 

The  Venetian  islands,  which  had  been  peopled  by  the  134 
emigration  consequent  on  Attila's  invasion  of  Italy,  were,  B 
in  the  first  instance,  governed  by  tribunes,  and  subject  to 
the  Roman  empire,  then  to  the  Ostrogothic,  and  at  a  later 
period  again  to  the  Roman.  In  the  year  697  the  whole 
group  was  placed  under  the  administration  of  an  officer 
named  Dux  or  Doge ;  but  their  political  relations  with  the 
eastern  empire  continued  until  the  separation  of  Venice 
and  the  other  Italian  states  from  the  Byzantine  government, 
occasioned  by  the  edicts  of  the  iconoclastic  emperors. 
About  the  year  800,  the  seat  of  government  was  esta- 
blished on  the  Rialto,  an  island  which  had  successfully 
resisted  the  attacks  of  King  Pepin  (son  of  Charlemagne). 
Being  joined  by  bridges  to  the  other  islands,  it  became  the  c 
centre  of  a  maritime  city,  which  enlarged  its  dominions  by 
conquests  in  Dalmatia,  about  the  year  1000 ;  and  by  means 
of  an  extensive  commerce,  for  which  its  position  between 
two  of  the  most  powerful  states  of  Europe  afforded  extra- 
ordinary facilities,  soon  became  one  of  the  most  important 
cities  of  Italy,  and  eventually  of  the  world. 

C.    Papal  Italy,  or  the  States  of  the  Church. 

The  foundation  of  the  pope's  temporal  power  was  laid  135 
by  Pepin  (see  §  59),  who  settled  on  the  popedom  the  pro-  D 
vinces  of  Romagna  and   Urbino,  an  endowment  which 
Charlemagne  not  only  confirmed,  but  augmented  by  grants 
:  f  land  in  Tuscany  ;  and  perhaps  of  those  estates  on  the 
other   side  of  the  Tiber,  which  had   been  ceded  to   the 
empire  by  the  Duke  of  Benevento.     To  this  patrimony  of 
St.  Peter,  as  it  was  called,  Henry  III.  added  the  city  of 


70  THE  MIDDLE  AGES.    [136,  137.  §25. 

(135)  Benevento,  in  return  for  the  renunciation  by  the  pope 
A  (Leo  IX.)  of  the  revenues  and  patronage  of  certain 
Prankish  churches;  and  a  still  more  important  accession  of 
territory  was  obtained  through  the  liberality  of  the  Mar- 
gravine Matilda  of  Tuscany,  who  bequeathed  (in  1077,  not 
in  1102)  all  her  allodes  to  the  see  of  Rome.  Lastly,  the 
Normans  consented  to  hold  Apulia  and  Calabria  as  fiefs ; 
but,  during  this  period,  no  temporal  authority  was  exercised 
by  the  pope  over  Rome  itself,  or  the  dukedom  in  which  it 
was  situated. 

D.     Lower  Italy. 

136  On  the  ruins  of  the  Lombard  empire  arose  the  Lorn- 
B  bardic  dukedom  of  Benevento,  which  comprehended 

the  greater  part  of  the  present  kingdom  of  Naples,  and  was 
at  first  independent,  but  subsequently  became  a  Prankish 
fief.  At  a  later  period  Salerno  and  Capua  separated 
from  Benevento,  and  formed  a  second  and  third  Lombardic 
principality.  The  Greeks  retained  only  Calabria,  and  a 
narrow  strip  of  territory  along  the  western  coast  (with  the 
cities  of  Terracina,  Naples,  Gaeta,  and  Amalfi),  which 
were  exposed  to  perpetual  attacks  from  the  Arabians,  who 
had  been  settled  in  Sicily  since  the  year  827,  and  in  a 
short  time  established  themselves  also  in  Bari. 

137  In   the   fourteenth   century  the  whole  of  lower  Italy 
c  became  a  prey  to  the  Normans,  who  had  first  visited  Italy 

as  adventurers  in  the  year  1017,  and,  in  return  for  certain 
military  services,  had  obtained  from  the  Greek  duke  a  strip 
of  land,  on  which  they  built  the  city  of  Aversa.  From  this 
stronghold  the  twelve  sons  of  Count  Tancred,  of  Haute- 
ville,  sallied  forth  to  subdue  Calabria  and  Apulia ;  and 
one  of  them,  Robert  Guiscard  (surnamed  the  Cunning),  was 
invested  by  Pope  Nicholas  II.  with  the  dignity  of  duke, 
and  the  fiefsof  Apulia,  Calabria,  and  Sicily,  the  last  of  which 
had  been  conquered  by  his  brother  Roger  after  a  thirty 
D  years'  war.  Under  pretence  of  replacing  on  the  throne 
the  deposed  Emperor  Michael  VIII.  (father-in-law  of  his 
daughter),  Robert  Guiscard  raised  an  army,  and  after 
obtaining  a  victory  at  Durazzo,  and  placing  a  garrison  in 
that  key  of  the  eastern  empire,  advanced  towards  Con- 
stantinople ;  but  the  exhaustion  of  his  army,  an  insurrec- 
tion of  the  Apulian  cities,  and  the  expedition  of  Henry  IV. 


138—144.  §26.]  FRANCE.  71 

against  Pope  Gregory  VII.,  compelled  him  to  retrace  his  (137) 
steps.     After   liberating   the    pope,   Robert    undertook   a  A 
second   expedition  against    Greece,  and  died  during  the 
campaign  (at  Cephalonia,  in  1085).     After  the  decease  of 
his  grandson  (who  died  without  issue),  Apulia  and  Cala- 
bria were  united  with  Sicily,  by  Roger  II.,  son  of  his 
youngest  brother,  who  was  crowned  King  of  the  Two 
Sicilies  in  1130. 

E.    The  Islands. 

1.  Sicily  was  taken  from  the  Byzantines  (in  827)  by  138 
the  Arabians,  who  were  compelled  to  surrender  it  to  the  B 
Normans  in  1060. 

2.  Sardinia  was  wrested  from  the  Byzantines  (850)  by  1 39 
the  Arabians,  and  from  the  Arabians  by  Pisa  (1022). 

3.  Corsica  at  first  was  subject  to  the  Arabians,  and  140 
then  became  the  object  of  a  struggle,  which  lasted  200 
years,  between  Genoa  and  Pisa. 

§  26.  France  under  the  last  Carlovingians. 

As  Charles,  third  son  of  Lewis  the  Stammerer,  was  still  141 
a  child,  when  the  Prankish  empire  was  divided  for  the 
third   time,  the    nobles,  who  were    hard-pressed    by  the 
invading  Normans,  elected 

1.  Otho,  Count  of  Paris  (888 — 898),  who  was  unable  142 
either  to  restrain  the  insolence  of  the  Normans,  or  obtain  c 

a  general  recognition  of  his  title  to  the  throne. 

2.  Charles  III.,  surnamed  the  Simple  (898—929),  143 
who  was  elected  in  opposition  to  Otho  (in  893),  and  after  his 
death  recognized  as  sole  king,  conferred  on  Rollo  (or  Rolf, 

a  Norman  prince,  who  had  embraced  Christianity,  and 
been  baptized  by  the  name  of  Robert),  the  dukedom  of 
Normandy  with  the  feudal  sovereignty  of  Bretagne,  an 
arrangement  which  put  an  end  to  the  Norman  invasions. 
After  the  extinction  of  the  Carlovingian  race  in  Germany,  D 
Charles  took  possession  of  Lorraine.  Several  nobles  of 
the  kingdom,  being  discontented  with  Hagano,  the  minister 
of  Charles,  conspired  against  the  king,  and  elected  (922) 

3.  Robert,  duke  of  Francia,  brother  of  Count  Otho,  144 
who  was  slain  (after  reigning  one  year)  in  a  battle  against 
Charles  at  Soissons.    He  was  succeeded  by  his  son-in-law, 


72  THE    MIDDLE    AGES.      [145 149.    §26. 

145  4.  Rudolph,  duke  of  Burgundy  (923— 936).    Charles 
A  died  in  prison  in  929.     Lorraine  re-united  with  Germany 

by  Henry  I.     Repeated  invasions  of  the  Hungarians.    On 
the  death  of  Rudolph,  without  male  issue, 

146  5.  Lewis  IV.   (surnamed  the  Stranger),  the  son  of 
Charles  the  Simple,  returned  from  England,  and  ascended 
the  throne  (936 — 954).     Unsuccessful  attempt  to  recover 
Normandy.     His  son  and  successor 

147  6.  Lothar  (954 — 986)  carried  on  a  war  with  Otho  II. 
B  for   the    re-conquest   of  Lorraine,  with   no  success,  be- 
yond obtaining  for  his  brother  Charles  a  grant' of  Lower 
Lorraine,  to  be  held  as  a  fief  of  Germany.     On  the  death 
of  his  son 

148  7.  Lewis  V.  (Faineant)  without  male  issue,  after  a 
reign  of  fourteen  months,  his  uncle  Charles,  duke  of  Lower 
Lorraine,  was  excluded  from  the  succession,  as  being  a  Ger- 
man vassal,  and  Hugo  [Hugh],  surnamed  Capet  (from 
the  robe,  cappa,  which  he  wore  as  a  lay  abbot  ?),  duke  of 
Francia,  was  proclaimed  king  by  his  vassals  in  987. 

149  France  about  this  time  was  split  into  a  multitude  of 
c  greater  and  smaller  fiefs,  which  became  at  length  so  nume- 
rous, as  to  leave  no  territory  subject  to  the    immediate 
control  of  the  last  Carlovingians  except  Soissons,  Laori,  and 
a  few  insignificant  provinces.     The  immediate  fiefs  of  the 
crown,  the  possessors  of  which  might  be  said  to  share  the 
sovereignty  of  the  country  with  the  king,  rather  than  to  be 
dependent  on  him,  were  the  four  dukedoms  of  Francia 
(between  the  Seine  and  Loire),  Normandy  with  Bretagne, 
Aquitania  or  Guienne  (to  which  the  dukedom  of  Gascony  was 
united  at  a  later  period),  and  Burgundy, and  the  threecoun- 
ties  of  Toulouse,  Flanders,  and  Vermandois  (of  which  St. 

D  Quentin  was  the  capital) .  At  the  same  time  a  distinction  was 
established  between  northern  and  southern  France, 
founded  on  the  difference  of  language  (the  langue  d'oil,  or 
d'oui,  also  langue  Frangaise,  being  spoken  north  of  the 
Loire,  and  southwards  of  that  river  the  langue  d'oc,  which 
at  a  later  period  was  termed  the  Provencal  tongue),  man- 
ners (the  northern  French  character  being  more  daring, 
warlike,  and  fond  of  display  ;  the  southern  more  quick-wit- 
ted and  cunning,  but  at  the  same  time  more  industrious  and 


150 — 155.  §27,  28.]      ENGLAND.  73 

contented),  and  legal  codes  (in  the  north  the  Territorial ;  in  (149) 
the  south  the  Roman).  A 

§  27.  France  under  the  four  first  Capets  (987—1108). 

1.  Hugh  Capet  (987— 996),  Duke  of  Francia  and  150 
Count  of  Orleans,  annexed  the  dukedom  of  Francia  to  the 
crown,  and  having  gained  over  the  clergy  by  granting 
them  benefices,  and  the  lay  nobles  by  confirming  them  in 
the  hereditary  possession  of  their  fiefs,  was  universally 
recognized  as  king,  after  the  death  of  Duke  Charles  of 
Lower  Lorraine,  the  last  scion  of  the  Carlovingian  house. 

He  was,  however,  merely  the  first  of  more  than  forty  no- 
bles.    His  son  B 

2.  Robert  (996 — 1031)  added  the  dukedom  of  Bur- 151 
gundy  to  the  possessions  of  the  crown,  and  bestowed  it  as 

a  fief  on  his  third  son  Robert  (founder  of  the  younger 
Burgundian  line,  and  ancestor  of  the  kings  of  Portugal). 

3!  Henry  (1031— 1060).  Establishment  of  the  Treuga  152 
Dei  by  the  decrees  of  several  councils. 

4.    Philip  I.  (1060—1108).     At  the  beginning  of  his  153 
reign,  under  the  guardianship  of  Count  Baldwin  of  Flan-  c 
ders,   Duke   William  of  Normandy    conquers   England, 
which  is  separated  from  Normandy  after  his  death,  his  son 
William  (Rufus)  inheriting  the  former,  and  his  eldest  son 
Robert  the  latter. 

§  28.  England  under  the  West  Saxon  kings  (827 — 1016). 

The  Seven  Anglo-Saxon  kingdoms,  or  Saxon  Heptarchy,  154 
after  a  series  of  struggles,  were  united  under  one  crown  by 
Egbert,  king  of  Wessex,  the  first  who  gave  the  name  of 
England  (in  800)  to  the  island  of  Britain.    The  Danes  orD 
Normans,  who  for  half  a  century  (since  787)  had  harassed 
the  separate  Anglo-Saxon    kingdoms   by  repeated  inva- 
sions, renewed  their  attacks  towards  the  end  of  Egbert's 
reign,  and  continued  to  ravage  the  country  until  the  time 
of  his  youngest  grandson 

Alfred  the  Great  (871—901), 

who  had  been  anointed  by  the  pope  while  yet  a  child.     On  155 
his  accession,  Alfred  found  the  whole  of  England,  as  far  as 
Wessex,  and  subsequently  as  far  as  Somerset,  in  the  hands 
of  the  Danes ;    and  as  most  of  the  native  inhabitants  had 
4 


74  THE  MIDDLE  AGES.    [156,  157.  §29. 

(155)  either  abandoned  the  island,  or  submitted  to  the  invader, 
A  he  was  compelled  to  pass  one  winter  as  a  fugitive  in  the 
forests  of  Somersetshire.  In  the  disguise  of  a  minstrel, 
Alfred  visited  the  Danish  camp,  and,  availing  himself  of 
the  information  thus  acquired,  he  took  the  field  at  the  head  of 
the  loyal  inhabitants  of  three  Gaus,  and  defeated  the  Danes 
at  Heddington.  Gothrun,  the  Danish  leader,  was  per- 
suaded  to  embrace  Christianity,  and  surrender  East  Anglia, 
Northumbria,  and  a  few  cities  of  Mercia  to  the  conqueror. 

156  Having  thus  secured  peace,  at  least  for  a  season,  Alfred 
B  employed  the  time  in  restoring  the  cities  (London  among 

the  rest)  and  fortresses  which  had  been  demolished  by  the 
Danes,  building  a  fleet,  fortifying  the  coasts  against  foreign 
invaders,  and  facilitating  the  administration  of  justice  by 
the  publication  of  a  code  of  laws,  and  the  division  of  the 
country  into  counties,  hundreds,  and  tithings.  Schools  were 
also  established  in  all  parts  of  the  country,  learned  men 
invited  to  visit  England,  and  Latin  authors  translated  into 
the  vernacular  language  of  England  by  Alfred  himself. 
From  these  peaceful  occupations,  Alfred  was  summoned  to 
defend  his  kingdom  against  the  Normans,  who  had  landed 
on  the  coast  of  Britain  after  their  defeat  at  Louvain  by 

c  Arnulph.  At  the  same  time  his  hereditary  dominions  were 
assailed  by  two  fleets  manned  by  rebellious  East  Anglians 
and  Northumbrians,  who  were  soon  compelled  to  return  to 
their  allegiance;  but  it  required  a  war  of  three  years,  and 
a  succession  of  decisive  battles,  to  drive  the  Normans  out 
of  England.  The  reigns  of  Alfred's  successors  were  dis- 
quieted by  repeated  insurrections  of  the  Anglo-Danes, 
reinforced  by  bands  of  their  continental  brethren.  Ethel- 
red  three  times  purchased  peace  at  the  expense  of  an 
annual  tribute,  termed  the  Danegeld ;  but  these  concessions 

D  only  incited  the  Danes  to  fresh  acts  of  plunder.  The  dis- 
covery of  a  conspiracy  against  the  king's  life  induced 
Ethelred  to  command  the  massacre  of  all  the  Danes  in  his 
dominions  on  the  same  day  (Nov.  13,  1002),  an  act  of 
cruelty  which  Sweyn  and  his  son  and  successor  Canute 
avenged  by  conquering  the  whole  of  England. 

§  29.  Supremacy  of  the  Danes  in  England  (1016 — 1042). 

157  Canute  (1016 — 1035),  who  at  first  shared  the  throne 
with  Edmund  Ironsides,  the  son  of  Ethelred,  became,  by 


158,  159.  §30,  31.]        ENGLAND.  75 

the  death  of  his  colleague,  monarch  of  all  England,  which  (157) 
he  divided  into  four  provinces,  viz.,  Wessex,  Mercia,  A 
East  Anglia,  and  Northumbria,  secured  their  rights  of 
property  to  the  Anglo-Saxons  as  well  as  to  the  Danes,  by 
legislative  enactments,  forbad  heathenish  rites,  increased 
the  number  of  churches  and  convents,  and  enriched  them 
with  liberal  gifts.  By  a  convention  with  the  Emperor 
Conrad  II.,  Canute  became  master  of  the  March  of 
Schleswig.  In  the  year  1028  he  also  conquered  Nor- 
way and  the  north  British  kingdoms  of  Scotland  and 
Cumberland.  His  pilgrimage  to  Rome.  After  his  death,  B 
his  mighty  empire  was  divided  between  his  son  Hardica- 
nute,  who  received  Denmark  as  his  portion,  and  his  two 
(probably)  supposititious  sons,  Sweyn  and  Harold,  the 
former  of  whom  was  crowned  King  of  Norway,  and  the 
latter  of  England.  After  Harold's  death,  Hardicanute 
became  also  king  of  England,  and,  dying  suddenly  with- 
out issue,  was  succeeded  by  an  Anglo-Saxon  prince, 
Edward  the  Confessor,  youngest  and  only  surviving 
son  of  Ethel  red. 

§  30.  Restoration  and  extinction  of  the  Anglo-Saxon 
dynasty  (1042—1066). 

Edward  III.   (The  Confessor  (1042—1066)  was  158 
entirely  under  the  influence  of  Norman  favorites  and  of  c 
Earl  Godwin,  whose  daughter  was  married  to  the  king,  and 
who  with  his  sons  possessed  the  larger  and  richer  half  of 
England.     The  introduction  of  the  Norman  language,  man- 
ners and  customs  into  England  excited  universal  discontent 
among  the  Saxon  inhabitants.     After  his  death  the  throne 
was    occupied    by  his  brother-in-law,  Harold  II.,   who  D 
made  head  against  his  rebellious  brother  and  his  ally  the 
King  of  Norway,  but  was  overthrown  and  lost  his  life  in 
a  battle  fought  near  Hastings  (Oct.  14,  1066),  where 
William    of    Normandy    had    landed    with    60,000 
picked  soldiers.     By    this    victory    William    gained    the 
English  crown,  and  the  surname  of  "  The  Conqueror." 

§  31.   Scotland. 

The  earliest  inhabitants  of  Scotland  were  the  Picts  and  159 
Scots,    the  one  a  Celtic,  the  other  an  Irish  race,  both 
governed  by  kings  of  their  own  until  the  year  842,  when 


76  THE    MIDDLE    AGES.    [160,161.    §32,33. 

(159)  Kenneth  II.,  King  of  the  Scots,  having  conquered  the 
A  Picts,  united  the  two  kingdoms  under  the  name  of  Scot- 
land. The  Norman  piratical  hordes  from  Denmark  and 
England  were  successfully  withstood  by  the  Scots,  who 
formed  an  alliance  with  the  Anglo-Saxons.  The  kingdom 
of  Cumberland  was  conferred  as  a  fief  on  Malcolm  I.  by 
Edmund  Ironsides,  grandson  of  Alfred  ;  the  Scotch 
monarch  pledging  himself  to  render  military  service 
whenever  called  on.  Scotland  and  Cumberland  were  con- 
quered by  Canute,  but  permitted  to  retain  their  own  kings 
as  feudatories  of  England. 

§  32.  Ireland. 

160  Ireland,  at  its  conquest  by  the  English  in  1172,  seems  to 
B  have  been  divided  into    five  states — Connaught,    Ulster, 

Leinster,  Munster,  and  Meath,  each  governed  by  its  own 
king,  but  on  some  occasions  subject  also  to  one  of  the 
number,  who  exercised  a  sort  of  feudal  authority  over  the 
others.  As  early  as  the  fifth  century  the  Irish  were  con- 
verted to  Christianity  (by  St.  Patrick  ?),  convents  and 
schools  were  established,  and  holy  men  visited  the  con- 
tinent for  the  purpose  of  converting  the  heathen  German 
c  tribes  (Comp.  §  14,  1,  a).  A  code  of  Irish  laws  (Brehon 
laws,  i.  e.  decisions  of  the  judges)  is  still  extant.  The 
progress  of  civilization  was  retarded  for  three  centuries 
(from  795)  by  the  piratical  invasions  of  the  Normans,  who 
conquered  portions,  but  were  never  able  to  establish  their 
authority  over  the  whole  island. 

§  33.   Spain. 

161  1.  The  Arabian  portion  of  the  Peninsula,  which 
D  (until  the  year  1087)was  separated  from  Christian  Spain  by 

the  river  Duero  [Douro],  enjoyed  a  period  of  uninterrupted 
prosperity  under  the  Ommaijad  Caliphs  of  Cordova  (756 — 
1028),  especially  during  the  fifty  years  administration  of 
Abderrahman  III.,  (who  subjugated  the  whole  of  Maurita- 
nia), and  the  reigns  of  his  learned  son  Hakim  II.  and  the 
great  leader  Almanzor.  The  country  south  of  the  Duero 
[Douro]  had  a  population  of  twenty-five  to  thirty  millions, 
with  eighty  cities  of  the  first  class.  Cordova,  the  capital, 
contained  more  than  a  million  of  inhabitants,  600  mosques, 
eighty  public  schools,  and  a  university  with  a  library  of 


162—164.  $33.]  SPAIN.  77 

600,000  volumes.       The  descriptions  given  by  contem-  (161) 
porary  writers  of  the  splendor  of  the  court  and  the  mag-  A 
nificence  of  the  royal  palaces  (Azzehra  with    its  4300 
marble  columns),  border  on  the  fabulous.     Agriculture, 
horticulture,  mining  operations,  and  commerce  (principally 
with  Constantinople)  employed    a    large  portion    of  the 
population,  whilst  at  the  same  time  architecture,  poetry, 
and  the  sciences,  especially  mathematics,  astronomy,  with 
astrology,  chemistry,  and  medicine,  were  cultivated  with 
great  zeal  and  success. 

After  the  death  of  the  last  Ommaijad,  the  lieutenants  of  162 
the  different  cities  established  a  number  of  petty  king-  B 
doms,  all  of  which,  with  the  exception  of  Saragossa,  were 
overthrown  by-Jussof,  king  of  Morocco  (of  the  dynasty  of 
the  Morabethes),  who  annexed  Arabian  Spain  to  his  own 
dominions. 

2    Christian  Kingdoms,  a.  The  kingdom  of  A  stu-  163 
ria,  founded  by  the  Visigoths  (who  had  been  driven  by 
the  Arabians  into  the  mountains  of  the  North),  was  also 
called  the  kingdom  of  Leon,  after  the  removal  of  the  seat 
of  government  from  Oviedo  to  that  city. 

b.  The  Spanish  March,  which  had  been  conquered  164 
by  Charlemagne,  was  divided  by  his  feeble  successors  into  c 
two  counties — Barcelona  and  Navarre.     As  the  Counts  of 
Navarre  assumed  the    title  of  king,  there  were   at  this 
period  two  Christian  kingdoms  in  Spain.     After  the  death 

of  King  Sancho  III.,  (Mayor),  Navarre  was  subdivided  into 
four,  and  soon  afterwards  into  three  provinces — Castille, 
Arragon    and    Navarre,    which    were    subsequently    re- 
united.    At  the  conclusion  of  this  period  Christian  Spain  D 
comprised — 

a.  The  county  of  Barcelona  (independent  of 
France  since  the  year  997). 

Z>.  The  kingdom  of  Castile  and  Leon,  of  which 
Portugal  formed  a  portion,  until  the  year  1095,  when  it 
was  granted  as  a  county  by  King  Alfonso  VI.  to  his  son- 
in-law,  Henry  of  Burgundy. 

c.  The  kingdom  of  Arragon  and  Navarre. 


78  THE    MIDDLE    AGES.      [165 167.    §34,35. 


B.  The  East. 

§  34.   The  Byzantine  empire  under    the  Macedonian   em- 
perors (867 — 1056). 

165  At  the  commencement  of  this  period  the  empire  com- 
A  prehended  Thrace,  Macedonia,  Greece,  and  the  islands  of 

the  ^Egean  Sea,  a  portion  of  Lower  Italy  and  Asia  Minor. 
The  code  of  Justinian  was  repuhlished  under  the  title  of 
"  Basilikai,"  by  Basilius,  who  also  reformed  the  financial  ad- 
ministration of  the  empire.  His  successors,  the  philosophi- 
cal Leo  VI.  and  Constantine  V.  (Porphyrogenetus),  devoted 
themselves  entirely  to  literary  and  scientific  pursuits,  whilst 
the  Arabians,  Bulgariansj  and  Russians  ravaged  their  domi- 
B  nions  without  encountering  any  opposition.  On  the  other 
hand,  Armenia,  the  countries  between  the  Black  and  Cas- 
pian Seas,  with  the  islands  of  Crete  and  Cyprus,  Northern 
Syria  and  Sicily,  were  wrested  from  the  Arabians  by  the 
Emperors  Nicephorus,  Phocas,  and  John  Tzimisces.  Basi- 
lius II.  conquered  Bulgaria,  and  put  out  the  eyes  of  15,000 
Bulgarians.  After  the  extinction  of  the  Macedonian  male 
line,  five  individuals  were  raised  to  the  throne  by  the 
daughters  of  the  last  emperor  (Zoe  and  Theodora).  The 
last  of  these  rulers  was  deposed  by  Isaac  Comnenus, 
who  was  proclaimed  emperor  by  the  army. 

166  Notwithstanding  its  gradual  decline,  the  Eastern- empire 
c  was  still  the  most  considerable  among  the  kingdoms  of  the 

Christian  world,  its  population  the  most  numerous  and 
industrious,  and  its  capital  city  the  largest.  Until  the 
period  of  its  dissolution  the  people  continued  to  reject  with 
scorn  the  appellation  of  "Greeks,"  bestowed  on  them  by 
the  Franks,  and  to  speak  of  themselves  as  the  "  Roman" 
D  people.  Luxury,  profuse  expenditure,  and  unmeaning 
etiquette  still  reigned  at  the  imperial  court.  The  legisla- 
tive and  executive  authorities  were  united  in  the  person 
of  the  monarch ;  and  even  the  shadow  of  power  retained 
by  the  senate  was  at  last  annihilated  by  a  decree  of  Leo 
the  Philosopher. 

§  35.    The  Arabians  under  the  Abbasides  (750 — 1258). 

167  Soon  after  the  accession  of  the  Abbasides,  the  seat  of 
government    was   transferred    to   Bagdad,  a  city  on  the 


167.    §  35.]  THE    EAST.  79 

western  bank  of  the  Tigris,  which  had  been  built  on  (167) 
a  magnificent  scale  by  Al  Mansur,  and  soon  became  the  A 
capital  of  the  commercial  enterprise  and  civilization  of  the 
world.  For  the  separation  of  Spain  from  the  Caliphate, 
and  establishment  of  a  Caliphate  at  Cordova,  see  §  11. 
In  the  fifth  Caliph,  Harun  al  Raschid,  the  contemporary 
and  friend  of  Charlemagne,  and  still  more  in  his  son, 
Mamun  (the  seventh  Abbaside),  the  arts  and  sciences,  as 
well  as  commercial  and  manufacturing  industry,  found 
enlightened  and  liberal  protectors ;  and  throughout  the 
empire,  at  that  period  the  largest  in  the  world,  the  muni- 
ficent example  of  the  sovereign  was  followed  by  the  pro- 
vincial governors.  Notwithstanding  these  appearances  of  3 
prosperity,  the  work  of  dissolution  had  already  com- 
menced— 1.  In  the  secession,  at  first  of  the  more  remote, 
and  subsequently  of  the  nearer  provinces,  which  were 
erected  into  independent  sovereignties  by  their  rulers. 
Thus,  for  example,  in  Spain,  the  empire  of  the  Ommai- 
jades  was  established  at  Cordova  as  early  as  the  year  756; 
in  Africa  those  of  the  Aglabides,  Edrisides,  Fatimides, 
and  Morabethes  ;  and  in  Asia  a  multitude  of  dynasties, 
almost  all  of  which  gradually  became  subject  to  the  Selds- 
chuks,  by  whom  towards  the  end  of  the  eleventh  century 
most  of  the  Asiatic  possessions  of  the  caliphs  were  united 
under  one  crown.  Scarcely,  however,  had  the  empire  of  c 
the  Seldschuks  been  established  on  this  extensive  basis, 
when  it  was  again  split  (after  the  death  of  the  third  sultan 
in  1092)  into  several  small  sovereignties  (in  Iran,  Kerman, 
Aleppo,  Damascus,  and  Iconium,  or  Rum),  nothing  re- 
maining to  the  caliphs  but  the  city  of  Bagdad,  with  its 
immediate  neighborhood.  2.  In  the  admission  into  Bag- 
dad of  a  Turkish  body-guard  of  50,000  men,  who  soon 
exercised  uncontrolled  influence,  deposing  and  appointing 
caliphs  at  their  pleasure.  3.  In  constant  political  and  D 
religious  dissensions  (formidable  sects  of  the  Carmathians 
and  Assassins).  4.  In  a  succession  of  feeble,  and  at  the 
same  time  cruel  and  oppressive  rulers,  who  since  the  year 
955  had  intrusted  the  affairs  of  government  to  a  Turk, 
under  the  title  of  Emir  al  Omrah,  reserving  to  them- 
selves only  the  high  priesthood. 


80  THE    MIDDLE    AGES.      [168 170.    §36. 

C.  The  North-east  of  Europe. 
§  36.   Scandinavia. 

168  1.  Norway  and  Iceland.  The  provinces  of  Norway 
A  existed  as  independent  sovereignties,  each  governed  by  its 

own  petty  monarch  until  the  end  of  the  ninth  century,  when 
they  were  united  under  Harald  Harfagr,  who  founded  a 
Norwegian  kingdom,  to  which  he  soon  afterwards  added, 
by  conquest,  the  Hebrides,  Feroe,  and  Shetland  islands, 
and  the  Isle  of  Man.  The  chieftains  who  refused  to  sub- 
mit to  his  authority,  either  emigrated  to  Western  Europe 
or  Sweden,  or  colonized  the  recently  (in  861)  discovered 
island  of  Iceland,  where  they  established  a  fourth  Scan- 
dinavian state,  which  was  soon  raised  into  importance  by 
the  commercial  and  manufacturing  activity  of  its  founders, 
and  their  extensive  voyages  of  discovery  (to  Greenland, 
B  North  America,  &c.).  About  the  year  1000  Christianity 
was  introduced  by  Olaf  I.  and  Olaf  the  Saint.  At  the  same 
time  Norway  was  conquered  and  divided  by  the  Danes  and 
Swedes.  Olaf  the  Saint,  who  had  made  head  for  a  long 
period  against  the  invaders,  was  at  length  conquered  and 
slain  in  a  battle  with  Canute  the  Great ;  but  the  independ- 
ence of  Norway  was  re-established  by  his  son  Magnus. 

169  2.  Sweden  was  inhabited  by  two  principal  races,  the 
c  Fins  and  Germans ;  the  latter  being  also  subdivided  intc 

Goths  and  Swedes,  who,  (about  the  time  when  Harald 
formed  the  petty  principalities  of  Norway  into  one  king- 
dom) were  placed  by  Erich,  the  son  of  Edmund,  under  one 
sovereign,  who  resided  at  Upsala,  the  city  of  the  gods. 
The  Christian  religion,  although  known  in  Sweden  as  early 
as  800,  was  not  generally  received  until  the  year  1000, 
when  the  repeated  attempts  of  missionaries  from  Hamburg 
and  Bremen,  to  convert  the  people,  were  at  length  crowned 
with  success. 

170  3.  Denmark.     The  Danish  islands  and  Jutland  had 
Deach  their  own  king,. until  the  time  of  Gorm  the  Elder, 

king  of  Zealand  (of  the  race  of  the  Skioldings,  who  trace 
their  descent  from  Odin),  who  overthrew  the  other  chief- 
tains, and  compelled  the  whole  nation  to  recognize  him  as 
their  sovereign,  in  the  year  900.  His  male  descendants 
occupied  the  throne  until  the  middle  of  the  eleventh  cen- 


171.  §37.]    THE  NORTH-EAST  OF  EUROPE.  81 

tury.  For  the  conquest  of  Schleswig,  by  Henry  I.,  and  (170) 
the  expedition  of  Otho  the  Great  to  Jutland,  see  §  23.  A 
Sweyn  conquered  England,  to  avenge  the  murder  of  the 
Danes,  and  also  Norway  (in  conjunction  with  the  Swedes). 
He  was  succeeded  in  England  by  Canute  the  Great 
(1014),  who  also  ascended  the  Danish  throne  after  the 
death  of  his  elder  brother  Harold  (in  •)•  1016).  Under 
this  sovereign  Schleswig  was  annexed  to  the  kingdom  of 
Denmark,  by  a  convention  with  the  Emperor  Conrad  II. ; 
and  Norway,  which  had  re-asserted  its  independence  under 
Olaf  the  Saint,  was  again  reduced  to  submission.  For  the  B 
confirmation  of  the  Christian  religion,  which  had  been 
established  by  his  father,  Canute  founded  churches,  con- 
vents, and  bishoprics.  After  his  death  and  that  of  his  son, 
Denmark  was  for  a  short  time  subject  to  Magnus,  king  of 
Norway,  until  its  emancipation  by  Sweyn  Estritson,  who 
founded  the  dynasty  of  the  Estritides  (1047 — 1375). 

§  37.  Russia. 

Russia,  the  southern  portion  of  which  was  inhabited  by  171 
the  Chazares,  and  the  north  and  centre  by  Tschudish  and  c 
Sclavonian  tribes,  was  visited  in  the  year  862,  on  the 
invitation  of  the  Sclavonians,  by  the  Varogian  chieftain 
Ruric  (a  prince  of  the  Swedish  tribe  of  Russ),  who 
founded  the  grand-dukedom  of  Russia,  with  its  capital 
Novgorod,  from  which  the  government  was  soon  afterwards 
transferred  to  Kiev,  where  the  family  of  Ruric  continued 
to  reign  until  the  end  of  the  sixteenth  century  (1598). 
Under  his  immediate  successors,  the  Normans,  in  conjunc-  D 
tion  with  the  Sclavonians,  following  the  course  of  the 
Dnieper,  made  several  predatory  descents  on  the  coasts  of 
the  Byzantine  empire  ;  but  being  unable  to  withstand  the 
destructive  Greek  fire,  they  concluded  a  truce,  the  result 
of  which  was  a  peaceful  commercial  intercourse  with  their 
former  enemies,  and  the  introduction  of  Christianity  into 
Russia.  Vladimir  the  Great  (988)  embraced  Christianity 
on  his  marriage  with  a  Byzantine  princess  (Anna),  and 
endeavored  to  spread  the  knowledge  of  the  true  faith  by 
building  churches  and  convents.  The  district  known  as 
"  Red  Russia "  was  conquered  by  this  sovereign,  who 
endeavored  to  introduce  Byzantine  civilization  among  his 
4* 


82  THE  MIDDLE  AGES.   [172,  173.  §  38,  39. 

A  subjects.  Kiev,  with  its  400  churches,  was  popularly 
spoken  of  as  a  second  Constantinople. 

§  38.  Poland. 

172  The  Slaves  on  the  middle  Vistula  (whose  capital  was 
Gnesen)  were  called  Poles.     In  the  year  840  they  chose 
for  their  Duke  a  peasant  named  Piast,  whose  family 
continued    to    reign  for  more   than  five    centuries  (until 
1370).     In    the    year    965,  one   of  their   dukes   named 
Miecislav,  embraced  Christianity,  founded  a  bishopric  at 
Posen,  and  recognized  the  Emperor  of  Germany  as  his 

B  feudal  sovereign.  His  son  Boleslav,  with  the  assistance 
of  St.  Adalbert,  exterminated  the  remnants  of  heathenism, 
and  founded  bishoprics  at  Breslau,  Colberg,  and  Cracow, 
and  an  archbishopric  at  Gnesen.  This  prince  carried  on 
several  wars  successfully  against  the  Russians,  united  un- 
der his  rule  the  Lechites,  Poles,  Masovians,Cracowians,and 
Silesians,  compelled  the  Pomeranians  to  pay  tribute,  and 
a  short  time  before  his  death  caused  himself  (in  1024)  to 
be  crowned  King  of  Poland,  by  his  bishops.  Bolis- 
lav  II.  having  abandoned  his  dominions,  in  consequence  of 
a  sentence  of  excommunication  pronounced  against  him  by 
Pope  Gregory  VII.  for  the  murder  of  St.  Stanislaus,  bishop 
of  Cracow,  Poland  again  became  a  dukedom  (from  1079 
to  1295). 

§  39.  Hungary. 

173  Towards  the  end  of  the  ninth  century  (889)  the  Hunga- 
c  rians  (called  also  Magyars  from  the  name  of  their  principal 

tribe)  advanced  from  the  centre  of  Asia  into  the  country  of 
the  Avares,  under  the  command  of  a  leader  named  Arpad, 
whose  family  continued  to  reign  until  the  end  of  the  thir- 
teenth century.  After  assisting  King  Arnulf  against  the 
Moravians,  and  taking  possession  of  their  country,  squa- 
drons of  Hungarian  cavalry  overran  Southern  Germany, 
Burgundy,  and  Italy,  until  they  were  driven  back  by  Henry 
D  I.  and  Otho  1.  Christianity  was  introduced  among  them 
towards  the  end  of  the  tenth  century,  and  several  bishop- 
rics (nine  or  ten,  including  the  arch  bishopric  of  Gran)  were 
founded  by  Duke  Stephen  the  Saint,  who  was  crowned 
king  by  Pope  Sylvester  II.  in  the  year  1000.  Peter,  the 
son  and  successor  of  this  Stephen,  having  irritated  the 


174.  §40.]    THE  NORTH-EAST  OF  EUROPE.  83 

people  beyond  endurance  by  his  excesses,  was  deprived  of  (173) 
the  throne,  which  he  recovered  by  the  aid  of  Henry  III.,  A 
to  whom  he  took    the  oath  of  fealty  as  a  vassal  of  the 
empire.     He  was  deprived  of  his  sight  by  a  savage  faction 
(who  desired  the  re-establishment  of  paganism),  and  died  in 
prison.     After  thirty  years  of  intestine    confusion,  tran- 
quillity was  at  length  restored  by  Ladislav  the  Saint. 

§  40.  Religion,  arts,  sciences,  fyc.,  during  the  second  period. 

The  Church.  The  increasing  influence  of  the  clergy  174 
was  viewed  by  the  temporal  power  with  a  jealousy,  which  B 
was  the  natural  result  of  the  vague  and  ill-defined  position 
occupied  by  the  two  parties  with  reference  to  each  other.  To 
the  pope  belonged  the  privilege  of  crowning  the  emperors, 
the  supreme  legislative  authority  in  ecclesiastical  matters, 
arid  judicial  power,  not  only  over  spiritual  persons,  but  in 
questions  affecting  the  interests  of  the  Church,  over  laymen 
also  (the  interdict  and  excommunication).  He  also  en- 
joyed the  right  of  appointment  to  the  highest  ecclesiastical 
offices  (gift  of  the  pallium  to  the  bishops),  and  the  posses- 
sion of  the  territories  conferred  on  the  Church  by  Pepin. 
The  number  of  c  o  n  v  e  r  t  s  was  greatly  increased,  especially  c 
in  Germany,  between  the  ninth  and  eleventh  centuries. 
The  monks,  most  of  whom  (since  the  tenth  century)  were 
priests,  employed  themselves,  according  to  the  rule  of  St. 
Benedict,  in  agriculture,  various  handicrafts,  the  instruction 
of  youth,  transcribing  of  ancient  writers,  the  compilation  of 
chronicles,  &c. ;  but  the  general  profligacy  and  coarseness 
of  the  limes,  the  introduction  of  lay  brethren,  and,  more 
than  all,  the  increasing  wealth  of  these  establishments,  pro- 
duced, in  many  instances,  a  laxity  of  discipline  utterly  sub- 
versive of  morality.  A  partial  reformation  was  effected  D 
by  the  establishment  of  a  convent  at  Clugny  in  Burgundy, 
after  the  rule  of  St.  Benedict,  whose  improvements  were 
adopted  in  seventeen  other  convents.  At  the  same  time 
strenuous  efforts  were  made  by  the  Abbot  Dunstan  for  the 
introduction  of  the  same  rule  into  the  convents  of  England. 
Some  additions  to  the  rule  of  St.  Benedict  in  the  eleventh 
century  occasioned  the  establishment  of  the  Cistercian 
order  (so  named  from  their  first  convent  at  Citeaux  near 
Dijon),  out  of  which  arose  the  Bernardine  (founded  by  St. 


84  THE  MIDDLE  AGES.    [175,  176.  §40, 

(174)  Bernard  of  Clairvaux)  and  the  Carthusian  (by  St.  Bruno  of 
A  Cologne  in  1086).  Cathedral  chapters,  the  members  of 
which,  from  the  regularity  of  their  lives,  were  termed 
canonici  or  canons,1  were  founded  in  760,  by  Chrodogang, 
bishop  of  Metz,  and  generally  established  by  a  diet  held  by 
Lewis  the  Pious  at  Aachen  (Aix-la-Chapelle)  in  816;  but 
as  early  as  the  eleventh  century,  many  of  them  had  relaxed 
the  strictness  of  their  original  discipline. 

175  For  the  propagation  of  Christianity,  and  the  develop- 
ment of  the  various  political  constitutions,  see  the 
history  of  the  different  countries. 

176  Arts  and  Sciences.    During  the  whole  of  this  period 
B  the  arts  and  sciences  flourished  not  only  among  the  Asiatic, 

but  in  a  still  higher  degree  among  the  Spanish  Arabians  (see 
§  33).  The  Caliphs  (especially  Mamun)  spared  no  ex- 
pense for  the  purpose  of  procuring  Greek,  Persian,  Coptic, 
and  Chaldaic  manuscripts,  which  were  translated  into 
Arabic  by  societies  of  learned  men.  In  all  the  Arabian 
provinces,  particularly  in  Bagdad,  Alexandria,  Ispahan, 
Samarcand,  Damascus,  Kufa,  Bassora,  and,  above  all,  in 
Cordova,  there  existed  schools  and  universities,  in  which 
not  only  Mussulmans,  but  Christians  and  Jews,  and  even 
some  of  the  Caliphs  themselves,  received  instruction  in 
philosophy,  medicine,  mathematics,  and  physical  science. 

c  The  poetry  of  this  period,  although  fostered  by  poetical 
contests  at  the  courts  of  the  Caliphs,  was  deficient  in 
comprehensiveness,  variety,  and  arrangement.  The  litera- 
ture of  the  Arabians  is  rich  in  legendary  tales  and  romances 
of  chivalry,  the  latter  of  which  were  invented  by  the 
writers  of  that  country  ;  but  their  best  works  have  all  the 

D  dryness  of  ancient  chronicles.  Geographical  science  was 
also  greatly  advanced  by  their  conquests,  voyages,  and  pil- 
grimages; but  their  most  successful  efforts  were  in  the 
department  of  natural  science,  including  every  branch  of 
medicine  except  anatomy,  the  practice  of  which  was  for- 
bidden by  the  Koran.  This  defect  was,  however,  in  some 
measure  supplied  by  a  diligent  study  of  botany,  and  by  the 
discoveries  for  which  chemistry  was  indebted  to  the  per- 
severing but  fruitless  attempts  of  the  alchemists  to  produce 
the  philosophers'  stone.  In  philosophy  and  physics  they 

1  [From  the  Greek  word,  tcat/cav,  a  rule.] 


176.    §40.]         THE    NORTH-EAST    OF    EUROPE.  85 

never  advanced  beyond  the  principles  of  Aristotle,  which  (176) 
were  often  misunderstood.  Algebra,  trigonometry,  and  A 
astronomy  were  simplified,  and  enriched  with  new  dis- 
coveries: astrology  was  also  highly  esteemed.  The  Ara- 
bian school  of  architecture,  the  characteristics  of  which  were 
lightness  and  profuse  ornament,  produced  several  magnifi- 
cent works,  especially  in  Spain.  In  Persia  also  poetry 
flourished  under  the  Ghasnavides  and  Seldschuks.  The 
most  renowned  of  the  Persian  epic  poets,  Firdusi,  who 
celebrated  in  his  verses  the  heroic  deeds  of  the  Persian 
kings,  lived  at  the  court  of  Ghasna  about  A.D.  1000.  In  P 
the  Byzantine  empire,  Greek  literature,  which  had  been 
neglected  during  the  iconoclastic  controversy,  began  again 
to  be  cultivated  in  the  ninth  century,  but  with  little  result 
beyond  the  publication  of  extracts  (by  Photius  and  Con- 
stantinus  Porphyrogenetus)  from  the  ancient  writers.  His- 
torical writing  was  almost  entirely  limited  to  the  compilation 
of  dry  chronicles.  Suidas  in  his  grammatical  and  historical 
Lexicon,  and  the  author  of  the  Etymologicum  Magnum, 
exhibit  an  intimate  acqaintance  with  the  works  of  classical 
writers.  In  sculpture  and  painting,  simplicity  and  good 
taste  were  rapidly  disappearing  before  a  love  of  the  elabo- 
rate and  minute.  In  the  West,  learning  was  exclusively  c 
in  the  hands  of  the  clergy,  who  studied  in  the  renowned 
convents  and  capitular  schools  of  St.  Gall,  Corvey,  Fulda, 
Paderborn,  and  Hildesheim,  as  well  as  at  Paris  and  in 
Normandy.  Several  historical  works,  all  in  the  Latin 
language,  were  published  by  the  German  clergy  ;  Witte- 
hind  (history  of  the  Saxons),  Dithmar  (History  of  the 
Saxon  Emperors,  876  to  1018),  Wippo(Life  of  Conrad  II.), 
Hermannus  Contractus  (Chronicles),  Lambert  of  Aschaffen- 
burg  (Annals).  The  scholastic  philosophy  taught  in  the  D 
church  schools,  especially  at  Paris,  consisted  in  the  adapta- 
tion of  the  dialectics  of  Aristotle  to  the  discussion  of  theo- 
logical theses.  The  most  distinguished  professors  of  this 
philosophy  and  of  the  mysticism  of  the  Middle  Ages  were 
Job.  Scotus  Erigena  (at  the  court  of  Charles  the  Bald), 
and  two  archbishops  of  Canterbury,  Lanfranc  and  An- 
selm.  The  most  renowned  school  of  jurisprudence  was 
at  Bologna,  and  of  medicine  at  Salerno.  The  study  of 
mathematical  science  was  promoted  in  France  by  Gerbert, 
archbishop  of  Rheims  (afterwards  Pope  Sylvester  II.),  who 
had  received  his  education  in  Moorish  Spain.  Natural 


86  THE  MIDDLE  AGES.         [177.  §40. 

(176)  philosophy    was    rather   speculative  than    experimental ; 

A  hence  the  study  of  astrology,  magic  and  alchemy.  Latin 
ceased  to  be  a  living  tongue  in  the  ninth  century,  the 
Roman  and  German  languages  having  now  assumed  a 
settled  form.  The  earliest  specimens  of  German  literature 
are  the  Ludwigslied  (Lay  of  Lewis),  Otfried's  Christ  (a 
harmony  of  the  Gospels  in  rhyme),  and  Notker's  transla- 
tion of  the  Psalms. — Among  the  arts,  architecture  produced 
the  most  considerable  works  in  a  mixed  Lombardo-Byzan- 
tine  style,  e.  g.  in  the  noble  Minsters  at  Bamberg,  Worms, 

B  Mainz.  Spiers,  &c.  Baronial  castles  were  first  built  in 
the  eleventh  century  (the  Wartburg  in  1067). — Sculpture 
and  painting  seem  to  have  been  at  the  lowest  ebb  in  this 
century,  with  the  exception  of  painting  on  glass,  which  had 
become  very  general.  Music  made  considerable  progress, 
in  consequence  of  the  invention  of  a  new  system  of  notes, 
by  Guido  of  Arezzo  ;  and  of  time,  by  Franco  of  Cologne. 
177  Trade  and  manufacturing  industry  flourished 

c  principally  in  the  Arabian  countries,  especially  in  Spain 
(compare  §  33),  where  they  found  in  the  Abbasides  patrons 
no  less  zealous  than  the  Ommaijades  had  been  at  an 
earlier  period.  The  commerceof  Byzantium  was  gradually 
transferred  to  the  Italian  sea-ports  of  Venice,  Pisa,  Genoa, 
and  Amalfi,  which  had  already  established  themselves  as 
emporia,  whilst  the  trade  of  the  other  western  ports  was 
still  limited  to  the  mere  supply  of  the  daily  wants  of  the 
inhabitants.  Indian  and  Levantine  wares  were  brought 

D  into  Germany  up  the  Danube  from  Constantinople.  Re- 
gensburg  [Ratisbon],  at  that  period  the  most  populous  and 
important  city  of  Germany,  was  the  emporium  of  the 
commerce  not  only  between  the  East  and  West,  but  also 
between  the  North  and  South,  that  is  to  say,  between 
Poland,  Prussia,  and  Russia  on  the  one  side,  and  Italy  on 
the  other.  The  cities  of  the  South  of  France,  especially 
Marseilles,  traded  for  the  most  part  to  the  Levant ;  and 
those  of  the  North  (as  well  as  of  Friesland  and  the  North  of 
Germany)  to  England.  Commercial  relations  also  existed 
between  the  Sclavonians  on  the  Elbe  and  Baltic,  and  the 
neighboring  countries.  Manufacturing  industry  was  pro- 
moted by  the  rapid  increase  in  the  number  of  cities,  the 
establishment  of  fairs,  and  the  discovery  of  gold  and  silver 
mines  in  the  Hartz  mountains,  in  the  reign  of  Otho  the 
Great. 


178.    §41.]  THE    CRUSADES.  87 


THIRD  PERIOD. 
AGE    OF    THE    CRUSADES    (1096—1273). 

§41.   The  Crusades  (1096—1273). 
The    First    Crusade    (1696—1100). 

FOR  many  years  it  had  been  the  practice  of  Christians  178 
from  all  parts  of  the  Roman  empire,  to  perform  pilgrim-  A 
ages  to  the  Holy  Sepulchre,  where  a  magnificent  church 
had  been  erected  by  Constantine  the  Great.  The  number 
of  those  who  visited  Jerusalem  had  gone  on  steadily  in- 
creasing, even  after  the  occupation  of  the  city  by  the 
Arabians  (636)  ;  but  under  the  Fatimides  and  Seldschuks 
a  system  of  persecution  was  carried  on  against  the  Chris- 
tians, who  were  compelled  by  the  Turks  to  pay  a  heavy 
tax  for  the  privilege  of  visiting  the  Holy  City.  Instead,  B 
however,  of  diminishing  the  number  of  pilgrims,  the  effect 
of  this  intolerant  measure  was  to  excite  throughout  Chris- 
tendom a  general  desire  to  make  Palestine  again  a 
Christian  kingdom.  The  complaints  of  the  Eastern 
Christians  were  seconded  by  Peter  of  Amiens,  or  Peter 
the  Hermit,  as  he  is  generally  called,  who  had  recently 
returned  from  the  Holy  Land,  and  was  now  traversing 
Italy,  France,  and  Germany,  and  every  where  describing 
the  atrocities  of  which  he  had  himself  been  an  eye-witness. 
Councils  of  the  Church  were  also  held  at  Piacenza  and  c 
Clermont,  at  which  Pope  Urban  II.  exhorted  the  people  to 
assist  in  the  good  work  of  delivering  Jerusalem  out  of  the 
hands  of  the  unbelievers.  In  the  Spring  of  1096,  the 
crusade  was  commenced  by  detached  bands  of  adventurers 
from  France,  Italy,  and  Lorraine,  who  penetrated  as  far  as 
Hungary  and  Bulgaria,  where  most  of  them  were  cut  to 
pieces  by  the  inhabitants.  The  remainder,  under  Peter 
the  Hermit  and  Walter  of  Pexeijo,  a  needy  adventurer, 
surnamed  in  derision  the  Lord  of  Lackland  (Habenichts), 


88  THE  MIDDLE  AGES.        [179.  §41. 

(178)  advanced  as  far  as  Nicaea,  where  their  army  was  well  nigh 

A  annihilated.  On  the  15th  of  August,  1096,  an  expedition 
on  a  larger  scale,  and  under  more  favorable  auspices,  was 
undertaken  by  Godfrey  de  Bouillon,  duke  of  Lower 
Lorraine,  his  brother  Baldwin,  Count  Robert  of  Normandy 
.(brother  of  the  King  of  England),  Robert,  count  of  Flan- 
ders, Raymond,  count  of  Toulouse,  Boemund,  prince  of 
Tarento,  and  his  nephew  Tancred.  The  grand  army,  the 
several  divisions  of  which  reached  Asia  Minor  by  different 
routes,  numbered,  we  are  told,  more  than  half  a  million  of 

B  men.  The  city  of  Nicaea  was  first  attacked  and  carried 
by  storm.  Then  the  crusaders  took  Edessa,  and  conferred 
the  sovereignty  of  that  district  on  Baldwin  of  Lorraine. 
Antiochia,  which  had  surrendered  after  a  siege  of  nine 
months,  was  on  the  eve  of  falling  again  into  the  hands  of 
the  Turks,  when  the  besieged,  re-assured,  it  is  said,  by  the 
discovery  of  the  sacred  lance,1  made  a  sally  from  the  gates, 
dispersed  the  Turkish  army,  and  established  a  Christian 

c  principality  under  Boemund  of  Tarento.  The  army  of  the 
crusaders,  reduced  to  20,000  infantry  and  1500  cavalry,  at 
last  reached  Jerusalem,  which,  a  few  years  before  (in  1095) 
had  been  re-conquered  by  the  Fatimides.  After  closely 
investing  the  city  for  thirty-nine  days,  the  assailants  scaled 
the  walls  on  the  15th  of  July,  1099,  and  put  the  infidels  to 
death  without  mercy.  Godfrey  de  Bouillon,  as  the 
best  and  bravest  of  their  leaders,  was  proclaimed  King  of 
Jerusalem,  but  refused  to  accept  any  higher  title  than  that 
of  duke. 
179  A  Christian  state  was  also  founded  at  Tripolis,  by  Ray- 

D  mond  of  Toulouse.  An  army  of  140,000  men  was  collected 
for  the  re-conquest  of  Palestine,  by  the  Caliph  of  Egypt, 
who  was  drawn  into  an  ambuscade  near  Ascalon,  and 
defeated  by  Godfrey  de  Bouillon,  with  only  20,000  men. 
In  the  year  1100  Godfrey  died,  in  consequence  of  the 
fatigues  which  he  had  undergone  during  the  siege,  and  was 
succeeded  by  his  brother  Baldwin  I.,  prince  of  Edessa, 
who  accepted  the  title  of  king,  and  being  supported  by  the 
free  states  of  Italy,  Genoa,  Pisa,  and  Venice,  added  the 
maritime  cities  of  Csesarea,  Tripolis,  Berytus,  and  Sidon 
to  the  kingdom  of  Jerusalem,  which  at  its  first  establish- 

['  The  spear,  according  to  tradition,  with  which  the  side  of  our 
Blessed  Saviour  was  pierced.] 


180 — 182.  §41.]        THE  CRUSADES.  89 

ment  consisted    merely  of  the  capital  with    the  city  of  (179) 
Joppa,  and  about  twenty  hamlets.     Division  of  the  king-  A 
dom    into — 1.  the    crown-lands;    2.  the  county    of  Tri- 
polis;  3.  the  principality  of  Antiochia;  4.  the  county  of 
Edessa. 


The  Second  Crusade  (1147—1149). 

After  repeated  attempts  on  the  part  of  the  Egyptian  180 
caliphs  to  regain  possession  of  the  Holy  Land,  Edessa  was  B 
taken  by  storm,  during  the  minority  of  Baldwin  HI.,  and 
its  inhabitants  put  to  the  sword,  or  sold  as  slaves.  On 
receiving  intelligence  of  this  disaster,  Bernard,  abbot  of 
Clairvaux,  persuaded  the  emperor,  Conrad  III.,  and 
Louis  VII.,  king  of  France,  to  undertake  a  second  cru- 
sade. The  two  armies  marched  through  Hungary  with 
little  loss,  and  entered  the  Byzantine  dominions ;  but  soon 
afterwards  the  German  division  was  abandoned  by  its 
Greek  guides  near  Iconium,  and,  after  suffering  severely 
from  want  of  provisions,  was  attacked  by  the  forces  of  the 
Sultan  of  Iconium  so  fiercely,  that  scarcely  a  tenth  part 
survived  the  engagement.  After  sustaining  considerable  c 
loss,  some  joined  Conrad  at  Jerusalem,  and  the  two  sove- 
reigns proceeded  to  lay  siege  to  Damascus;  but,  failing  in 
their  attempt,  they  abandoned  the  Holy  Land,  and  re- 
turned to  their  own  dominions. 


The  Third  Crusade  (1189—1193). 

The  dynasty  of  the  Fatimides  in  Egypt  was  sustained  181 
(1163)  by  the  generals  of  Nureddin,  sultan  of  Damascus,  D 
who  was  soon  succeeded  by  his  nephew  Sal  ad  in.     This 
monarch  revived  the  claims  of  Egypt  to  Syria  and  Pales- 
tine, defeated  the  Christians  near  Damascus,  took  their 
king,  Guy  de  Lusignan,  prisoner,  and  entering  Jerusalem 
in  triumph,  put  an  end  to  the  kingdom  which  had  lasted 
eighty-eight  years. 

"The  loss  of  the  Holy  City  occasioned  the  third  crusade,  182 
which  was  undertaken  by  the  emperor,  Frederic  I.  (Bar- 
barossa),  now  in  his  seventieth  year,  Philip  Augustus,  king 
of  France,  and  Richard  Cceur  de  Lion  of  England,  with  the 


90  THE  MIDDLE  AGES.    [183,  184.  §41, 

(182)  flower  of  their  chivalry.  Barbarossa,  whose  army  was  the 
A  first  in  the  field,  entered  Asia  Minor,  and,  having  defeated 
the  Sultan  of  Iconium,  stormed  that  city,  but  soon  after- 
wards was  drowned  in  the  river  Calycadnos. 
183  The  remains  of  his  army,  the  ranks  of  which  were  daily 
thinned  by  pestilence  arid  desertion,  at  last  reached  Accon, 
Acra,  or  Ptolemais  (St.  Jean  d'Acre),  where  their  com- 
mander, Duke  Frederick  of  Swabia,  son  of  the  late  empe- 
ror, instituted  the  order  of  Teutonic  Knights,  and  soon 
afterwards  died  of  the  plague,  during  the  siege  of  the  city, 
Bin  the  year  1191.  Soon  after  his  death  the  place  was 
surrendered  to  the  kings  of  France  and  England.  It  was 
on  this  occasion  that  Richard  Cceur  de  Lion  insulted 
Leopold,  duke  of  Austria,  by  trampling  on  his  banner. 
Philip  and  Richard  having  disagreed  respecting  the  par- 
tition of  their  conquests,  and  the  mode  of  carrying  on  the 
war,  the  former  returned  to  France;  and  Richard,  after 
raising  the  siege  of  Joppa,  concluded  an  armistice  with 
Saladin,  by  the  terms  of  which  the  whole  line  of  coast  from 
Joppa  to  Accon  remained  in  the  hands  of  the  Christians, 
free  access  to  the  holy  places  being  also  secured  to  them, 
c  The  island  of  Cyprus,  which  had  been  conquered  by 
Richard,  was  sold  by  him  to  Guy,  the  last  king  of  Jeru- 
salem: hence  the  kingdom  of  Cyprus  (to  the  year  1480). 
On  his  return  from  Palestine,  Richard  was  seized  by 
Leopold  VI.  of  Austria,  and  delivered  up  to  the  emperor, 
Henry  VI.,  by  whom  he  was  released  after  two  years' 
imprisonment,  on  payment  of  a  ransom  of  150,000  marks. 


The  (so-named)  Fourth  Crusade  (1202—1204). 

184  Fresh  bands  of  crusaders  were  sent  out  by  the  emperor, 
D  Henry  VI.,  and,  having  reached  Syria  by  the  route  of 
Constantinople,  regained  possession  of  Sidon,  Tyre,  and 
Berytus.  Meanwhile  the  emperor  himself  died  in  Sicily. 
The  (so-called)  fourth  crusade  was  undertaken  by  the 
Franks  and  Venetians,  whose  forces,  instead  of  advancing 
into  Palestine,  remained  at  Byzantium,  for  the  purpose  of 
restoring  the  emperor,  Isaac  Angel  us,  who  had  been  de- 
posed and  blinded  by  his  brother  Alexius.  Finding,  how- 
ever that  the  promises  made  on  behalf  of  his  father  by 


185.    §41.]  THE    CRUSADES.  91 

Alexius  the  younger  (son  of  the  Emperor  Isaac),  were  not  (184) 
likely  to  be  fulfilled  (Isaac  having  died  of  grief  and  terror  A 
during  an  insurrection  of  the  Greeks),  the  French  and 
Venetians  a  second  time  took  possession  of  Constantinople, 
chose  Baldwin,  count  of  Flanders  and  Hermegau,  for  their 
emperor,  and  thus  founded  the  Latin  Empire  (1204 — 
1261).  Baldwin  received  only  a  fourth  part  of  the  empire, 
with  the  title  and  authority  of  feudal  sovereign  over  the 
rest,  which  was  divided  among  the  Venetians,  who  ob- 
tained possession  of  the  shores  of  the  Adriatic,  ^Egean,  and 
Black  Seas,  together  with  most  of  the  Greek  islands ;  and 
the  French  and  Lombard  nobles,  one  of  whom,  the  Mar- 
quis of  Montferrat,  received  for  his  share  the  whole  of 
Macedonia  and  a  portion  of  Greece,  which  were  named  the 
kingdom  of  Thessalonica.  A  Greek  empire  was  soon  after-  B 
wards  established  at  Nicaea  by  Theodore  Lascaris  (one 
of  the  family  of  the  Comneni),  whilst  at  the  same  time 
another  Byzantine  prince  reigned  independently,  with  the 
title  of  emperor,  at  Trebizond.  In  the  year  1261,  the 
Emperor  of  Nicsea,  Michael  Palseologus  (with  the  assist- 
ance of  the  Genoese,  who  were  jealous  of  the  Venetians), 
took  Constantinople,  and  put  an  end  to  the  Latin  empire. 

The  Crusade  of  Frederic  II.  (1228). 

The  attempts  of  Pope  Innocent  III.  to  regain  Palestine,  185 
by  means  of  a  general  crusade,  were  utterly  unsuccessful,  c 
The  children's  crusade  in  1213,  and  the  expedition  to 
Syria  of  Andrew  II.,  king  of  Hungary,  terminated  in  dis- 
appointment and  disgrace,  whilst  the  advantage  obtained 
by  the  titular  King  of  Jerusalem  (John  of  Brienne),  through 
the  capture  of  Damietta,  was  again  lost  by  the  surrender 
of  that  fortress  to  the  infidels  in  the  year  1221.  On  D 
receiving  intelligence  of  this  calamity,  Pope  Honorius  III. 
vehemently  urged  on  the  emperor,  Frederic  II.,  the  neces- 
sity of  fulfilling  the  promise  which  he  had  made  at  his 
accession,  and  again  at  his  coronation ;  but  so  many  diffi- 
culties intervened,  that  the  commencement  of  the  crusade 
was  deferred  until  the  year  1227.  Scarcely  had  the  empe- 
ror assembled  his  forces,  when  sickness  compelled  him 
again  to  defer  the  expedition;  and  the  pope  (Gregory  IX.), 
who  believed  this  to  be  a  mere  pretext,  at  once  published 


92  THE    MIDDLE    AGES.      [186 188.    §41. 

(185)  the  sentence  of  excommunication  against  him.    In  the  year 

A  1228,  Frederic  visited  Palestine,  and  placed  on  his  own 

head  the  crown  of  Jerusalem,  which  had  been  ceded  to 

him,  together  with  the  surrounding  territory  as  far  as  Tyre, 

by  Camel,  sultan  of  Egypt. 

The  Sixth  Crusade  (1248). 

186  A  violation  of  the  armistice  by  some  pilgrims,  under  the 
B  command  of  the  King  of  Navarre,  again  occasioned  the 

loss  of  Jerusalem  in  1239;  and  five  years  later  (1244)  the 
city  was  taken  from  the  Turks  by  the  Carizmians,  who  had 
been  driven  out  of  Khorassan  by  the  Monguls.  About 
this  time  Louis  IX.,  king  of  France,  commonly  called 
St.  Louis,  undertook  his  crusade  in  fulfilment  of  a  vow  which 
he  had  made  during  a  severe  illness,  and  landing  in  Egypt, 
the  possession  of  which  seemed  an  indispensable  prelude 
to  an  attempt  on  the  Holy  Land,  took  Damietta,  and 
c  defeated  the  Turks.  Advancing  towards  Cairo,  he  was 
taken  prisoner,  with  his  whole  army ;  and  after  a  long  nego- 
tiation was  at  length  released,  on  condition  of  evacuating 
Damietta,  and  paying  a  ransom  of  800,000  pieces  of  gold. 
After  his  liberation,  Louis  still  lingered  in  Accon  until  the 
year  1254,  and  fortified  the  sea-ports  of  Palestine. 

The  Seventh  Crusade  (1270). 

1 87  The  possessions  of  the  Christians  in  the  East  having 
D  fallen  one  by  one  into  the  hands  of  the  Mamelukes,  who 

had  overthrown  the  dynasty  of  Saladin,  and  raised  them- 
selves to  the  rank  of  sultans  of  Egypt  (1254 — 1517), 
Louis  undertook  another  crusade,  and  at  the  instance  of 
his  brother,  Charles  of  Anjou,  king  of  Sicily,  landed  at 
Tunis,  where  a  pestilence  carried  off  himself  and  the 
greater  part  of  his  army.  In  the  year  1291,  Accon,  the 
last  of  the  Christian  possessions  in  Palestine,  fell  into  the 
hands  of  the  Mamelukes. 


RESULTS  OF  THE  CRUSADES. 
A.     Political  Consquences. 

188      1.   To  the  Hierarchy,     a.  The  exaltation  of  the  papal 
power  was  the  natural  consequence  of  a  system  in  which 


189,   190.    §41.]       RESULTS    OF    THE    CRUSADES.  93 

the  pope  appeared  as  the  originator  of  plans,  which  the  (188) 
temporal  sovereigns  of  Europe  were  called  on  to  execute.  A 
b.  The  authority  of  the  pope  over  the  clergy  was  also  aug- 
mented by  the  opportunities  which  the  crusades  afforded 
fiim  of  appointing  legates,  who  exercised,  as  representatives 
of  the  Holy  See,  considerable  influence  over  the  arch- 
bishops and  bishops,  and  of  placing  episcopal  vicars  in  the 
dioceses  during  the  absence  of  the  bishops,  c.  The  wealth 
of  the  clergy  was  greatly  increased  by  the  opportunities 
afforded  to  churches  and  convents  of  purchasing,  at  a  cheap 
rate,  the  estates  of  those  who  were  anxious  to  join  the 
crusades. 

2.  To  the  Sovereigns  of  Europe.     Increase  in  the  num-  189 
ber  of  estates  belonging  immediately  to  the  crown,  occa-  B 
sioned  by  the  falling  in  of  several  fiefs,  especially  in  France 
under  Philip  II. — Another  result  of  the  wars  against  the 
infidels,  was  the  extension  in  European  countries  of  the 
dominions  of  Christian  sovereigns  (e.  g.  in  Spain),  and  the 
establishment  (e.g.  in  Prussia)  of  new  Christian  states. 

3.  To  the  Nobility,  the  consequences  of  the  crusades  190 
were  most  important,     a.    The  spirit  of  aristocracy  de-  c 
veloped  itself  in  the  formation  of  the  knightly  character, 
which  was  a  compound  of  religious  enthusiasm,  reckless 
courage,  and  love  of  adventure  in  the  service  of  religion 

or  of  beauty,  b.  The  distinctive  forms  of  nobility  were 
created  by  the  adoption  of  family  names  and  coats  of  arms, 
and  the  institution  of  degrees  of  chivalry  (pages,  esquires, 
knights),  c.  Origin  of  the  religious  orders  ofknight-D 
hood.  aa.  The  Knights  Hospitallers,  or  Knights  of  St. 
John.  Some  merchants  from  Amalfi  had  founded  at  Jeru- 
salem a  convent  and  hospital  for  sick  pilgrims.  The 
monks  of  this  institution,  which  was  dedicated  to  St.  John, 
were  afterwards  sworn  to  do  battle  against  the  infidels,  and 
were  divided  into  three  classes,  viz.  chaplains,  who  con- 
ducted the  public  worship;  knights,  who  bore  arms;  and 
lay-brethren,  on  whom  devolved  the  care  of  the  sick  and 
poor.  This  order  spread  over  the  whole  of  Europe,  and 
was  divided  into  eight  "tongues,"  according  to  the  lan- 
guages of  the  different  states  in  which  it  was  established. 
The  president  had  at  first  the  title  of  "  Master,"  and  after- 
wards of  "Grand  Master."  After  the  loss  of  Palestine, 
the  Knights  Hospitallers  established  themselves  at  Cyprus, 


94  THE    MIDDLE    AGES.  [191.    §41. 

(190)  and  in  the  year  1309  took  possession  of  Rhodes  (hence 

A  their  title  of  Knights  of  Rhodes),  which  they  held  against  the 
Turks  until  1522,  when  they  were  driven  from  it  by 
Soliman.  In  1530,  they  were  presented  by  the  emperor, 
Charles  V.,  with  Malta,  Gozzo,  and  Cornino  (hence  their 
title  of  Knights  of  Malta),  on  condition  of  their  waging 
perpetual  war  against  infidels  and  pirates.  Malta  was 

B  taken  from  them  by  Napoleon,  in  the  year  1798.  bb.  The 
Knights  Templars.  The  nucleus  of  this  order  existed  as 
early  as  the  year  1118,  in  an  association  of  nine  French 
knights,  for  the  protection  of  pilgrims  on  the  high  roads. 
Their  name  was  derived  from  their  residence  near  the  site 
of  Solomon's  temple,  in  a  building  granted  to  them  by 
Baldwin  II.  After  the  loss  of  the  Holy  Land,  most  of  the 
Templars  sought  an  asylum  in  France,  where  they  were 
cruelly  put  to  death  by  Philip  IV.  (1312),  after  a  mock 
trial  on  charges  substantiated  by  no  better  evidence  than 

c  confessions  extorted  from  them  by  the  rack.  cc.  The 
Teutonic  Order  was  founded  during  the  siege  of  Accon  (in 
1190)  by  a  number  of  German  knights  and  pilgrims,  who 
formed  an  association  for  the  relief  of  persons  attacked  by 
a  pestilential  disease,  which  at  that  time  raged  in  the  Ger- 
man camp.  The  knights  were  exclusively  Germans.  Their 
president  had  the  title  of  Teutonic  Master,  or  Grand 
Master.  Their  residence  was  removed  from  Jerusalem  to 
Venice  by  their  fourth  grand  master,  the  renowned  Her- 
man of  Salza,  who  undertook  the  conversion  of  the  heathen 
Prussians.  After  a  struggle,  which  lasted  fifty-three  years, 
Herman  obtained  possession  of  Prussia,  and  transferred  his 

D  residence  from  Venice  to  Marienburg  in  1309.  The  es- 
tablishment of  these  orders  contributed  essentially  to  the 
formation  and  consolidation  of  an  aristocracy,  and  prepared 
the  way  for  the  institution  of  similar  orders  of  knighthood 
in  Europe.  In  Palestine  they  supplied  the  place  of  a  stand- 
ing army,  and  in  the  struggles  between  the  ecclesiastical 
and  temporal  powers,  rendered  essential  service  to  the  par- 
ty which  had  the  good  fortune  to  secure  their  adherence. 
191  4.  To  the  Burgher  Order.  Guilds,  or  fraternities  of 
Burghers,  were  established,  which  obtained  various  privi- 
leges, generally  by  purchase,  when  their  lords  were  in  want 
of  money.  The  growth  and  prosperity  of  their  cities  were 
promoted  by  the  absence  of  the  nobles,  as  well  as  by  the 
increasing  activity  displayed  in  commercial  pursuits. 


192 194.  §41.]   RESULTS  OF  THE  CRUSADES.        95 

5.   To  the  peasant  order.    The  necessity  which  existed  of  (191) 
employing  freemen  in  the  cultivation  of  those  farms  from  A 
which  the  serfs  had  been  withdrawn,  to  supply  the  ranks  of 
the  crusaders,  occasioned  a  diminution  in  the  number  of 
vassals,  and  the  gradual  establishment  of  a  free  peasantry. 


B.    Consequences  to  Trade  and  Manufactures. 

1.  To  maritime  enterprise.    Important  commercial  privi-  192 
leges  were  acquired  by  the  Venetians,  and  to  a  certain  B 
extent  by  the  Genoese  and  Pisans,  in  all  the  principal  cities 

of  the  Byzantine  empire,  as  well  as  of  Syria  and  Palestine. 
During  the  fourth  crusade,  the  Venetians  obtained  possession 
of  most  of  the  seaports  and  islands  of  the  empire,  where 
they  established  colonies ;  the  command  of  the  Black  Sea 
securing  to  their  merchants  a  monopoly  of  the  northern 
trade,  and  a  considerable  share  in  that  of  Asia.  On  the  c 
re-establishment  of  the  Byzantine  government  at  Constan- 
tinople, the  Venetians  were  expelled  from  the  capital,  their 
place  being  occupied  by  the  Genoese ;  but  this  disaster  was 
comparatively  of  little  importance,  as  they  were  at  the  same 
time  enabled  to  conclude  commercial  treaties  with  the 
Saracens,  by  which  the  ^gypto- Indian  trade,  and  a  share 
in  the  commerce  carried  on  by  caravans  in  the  interior  of 
Africa,  were  secured  to  them,  together  with  permission 
to  establish  settlements  on  the  northern  coast  of  that  pe- 
ninsula. 

2.  To  the  overland  trade.     The  commerce  of  the  inte- 193 
rior,  which  in  former  days  had  been  for  the  most  part  D 
confined  to  the  beaten  route  from  Constantinople  to  Ger- 
many, along  the  banks  of  the  Danube  by  Vienna  and  Ra- 
tisbon,  was  diverted  into  various  other  channels  during  the 
period  of  the  crusades:  a.  from  the  seaports  of  Italy  into 
Germany :  b.  from  the  ports  of  the  South  of  France  into 
the  interior  of  that  country,  as  well  as  into  Brabant  and 
Flanders.     It  was  not,  however,  until  the  following  period, 
that  this  commerciaHntercourse  was  fully  developed. 

3.  To  manufacturing   industry.     Extension  to  Europe  194 
(to  the  South  in  the  first  instance)  of  the  manufacture  of 

'silk  and  cotton  stuffs,  and  the  production  of  sugar,  together 
with  a  more  active  exportation  of  European  produce  to 


96  THE  MIDDLE  AGES.   [195,  196.  §42. 

(194)  Greece  and  the  East.     Increase  of  luxury  in  the  cities,  a 
A  consequence  of  their  manufacturing  prosperity. 

C.     To  the  Sciences. 

195  The  mass  of  geographical  information  was  considerably 
augmented  by  the  knowledge  of  eastern  lands,  acquired 
through  the  crusaders,  as  well  as  by  the  accounts  of  mis- 
sionaries (since  the  thirteenth  century),  and  the  travels  of 
Marco  Polo,  a  Venetian  merchant;  but  the  defective  state 
of  mathematical  science  occasioned  grievous  mistakes  re- 

B  specting  the  position  of  different  countries.  Historical 
works,  for  which  there  was  abundant  material,  began  now 
to  be  written  (after  the  example  of  the  Orientals)  in  the 
vernacular  tongue.  Natural  history  and  medicine  were 
more  generally  studied. 

A.     The  West. 

§  42.   The   German  empire  under  Lothar  the  Saxon. 
(1125—1137.) 

196  Henry  V.  had  nominated  as  his  successors  the  two  sons 
c  of  his  sister  Agnes,  Frederick  and  Conrad  of  Hohenstaufen ; 

but,  under  the  influence  of  the  Archbishop  of  Mainz,  the 
choice  of  the  electors  fell  on  Lothar  [Lothaire]  duke  of 
Saxony,  who  agreed,  as  the  condition  of  his  election,  that 
the  Church  should  enjoy  the  undisputed  right  of  appointing 
her  own  officers,  and  that  the  investiture  of  bishops  by  the 
emperor  should  not  take  place  until  after  their  consecra- 
tion. The  vacant  dukedom  of  Saxony,  and  the  hand  of 
his  daughter,  were  conferred  by  Lothar  on  Henry  the  Proud, 
duke  of  Bavaria  (of  the  house  of  Welf  [Guelph]),  by  whose 
aid  he  defeated  Frederick  and  Conrad  of  Hohenstaufen, 
and  compelled  the  latter  to  renounce  the  title  of  King  of 
D  Germany.  Lothar  made  two  journeys  to  Rome.  On  the 
first  occasion  he  restored  Pope  Innocent  II.,  who  had  been 
expelled  from  Rome  by  his  rival,  Anaclete  II.,  and  re- 
ceived the  imperial  crown  from  his  hands,  together  with  a 
grant  of  the  lands  of  Matilda,  margravine  of  Tuscany,  to 
be  held  as  a  fief  of  the  Holy  See.  On  the  second,  he 
expelled  Roger  II.  from  Apulia  and  Calabria ;  but  no 
sooner  had  he  quitted  Italy,  than  the  exiled  king  returned 
to  his  dominions. 


197.    §42.]  THE    GERMAN    EMPIRE. 


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98  THE   MIDDLE   AGES.         [198,199.    §43. 

§  43.   The  German  empire  under  the  Hohenstaufen. 

(1138—1254.) 
1.  Conrad  III.  (1138—1152.) 

198  After  Lothar's  death,  the  claims  of  his  unpopular  son-in- 
A  law,  Henry  the  Proud,  who  had  already  possessed  himself 

of  the  crown  jewels,  were  set  aside  by  the  electors,  whose 
choice  fell  on  a  Hohenstaufen,  Conrad,  duke  of  Franconia. 
Henry,  on  being  required  to  resign  one  of  his  two  duke- 
doms, renounced  his  allegiance,  and  was  placed  under  the 
ban  of  the  empire;  his  dukedom  of  Bavaria  being  conferred 
on  Leopold,  margrave  of  Austria  (half-brother  of  Con- 
rad III.);  and  Saxony  on  Albert  the  Bear  (grandson  of 
Duke  Magnus  of  Saxony).  After  Henry's  death,  the  war 
was  carried  on  by  his  brother  Guelph  (his  son,  Henry  the 
B  Lion,  being  still  a  mere  child).  The  city  of  Weinsburg,  in 
which  Guelph  had  shut  himself  up,  was  taken  after  a  long 
siege  (in  1140),  and  the  lives  of  the  garrison  saved  through 
the  fidelity  of  their  wives  :  hence  the  name  of  "  Weiber- 
treue"  (woman's  fidelity),  which  the  hill  still  retains.  A 
treaty  was  concluded,  by  which  Saxony  was  restored  to 
Henry  the  Lion.  Conrad  was  the  first  king,  since  Otho 
the  Great,  on  whose  head  the  imperial  crown  was  not 
placed  by  the  pope. — For  his  crusade,  see  page  89. 

2.  Frederick  I.,  Barbarossa  (Red-beard). 
(1152—1190.) 

199  Conrad  was  succeeded  by  his  nephew,  his  son  being  still 
c  a  child.  Frederick,  who  was  a  Hohenstaufen,  or  Ghibel- 

line,  on  the  side  of  his  father,  and  a  Guelph  on  that  of  his 
mother,  endeavored  to  reconcile  the  two  houses ;  and  with 
that  view  restored  Bavaria  to  Henry  the  Lion  (who  had 
accompanied  him  in  his  first  Italian  campaign) ;  the  Mar- 
grave of  Austria  being  indemnified  by  the  elevation  of  his 
marquisate  to  the  rank  of  an  independent  dukedom,  here- 
ditary in  the  female  as  well  as  the  male  line.  His  great 
object  was  to  re-establish  the  imperial  authority,  which,  in 
Italy  especially,  had  sunk  into  insignificance  during  the 
reigns  of  his  predecessors.  For  this  purpose  he  visited 
Italy  six  times. 


200,201.    §43.]       THE    GERMAN    EMPIRE.  99 

First  Italian  campaign  (1154).  The  city  of  Milan  200 
having  declared  itself  independent,  Henry  addressed  a  A 
letter  of  remonstrance  to  the  magistrates,  which  was  torn 
in  pieces,  and  thrown  into  the  face  of  his  messenger.  On 
entering  Italy  for  the  first  time,  Frederick,  although  un- 
prepared to  attack  Milan,  was  able  to  reduce  three  other 
rebellious  towns»(Asti,  Chieri,  and  Tortona).  After  their 
surrender,  he  assumed  the  iron  crown  of  Italy  in  the  city 
of  Pavia,  and  marched  at  once  to  Rome,  whither  he  had 
been  summoned  by  Pope  Adrian  IV.,  whose  subjects  had 
been  persuaded  by  Arnold  of  Brescia  to  throw  off  the 
papal  yoke,  and  establish  a  senate  with  sovereign  authority,  . 
as  in  days  of  yore.  Arnold  was  taken  prisoner  by  Frede-  B 
rick,  delivered  up  to  the  prefect  of  the  city,  and  hung. 
His  body  was  burnt,  and  the  ashes  thrown  into  the  Tiber 
(1155).  Frederick  now  received  the  imperial  crown  from 
the  hands  of  the  pope,  whose  stirrup  he  held  previously  to 
the  ceremony.  A  terrible  disease,  which  soon  afterwards 
broke  out  among  his  troops,  compelled  Frederick  to  return 
to  Germany,  where  he  re-united  the  Burgundian  and  Ger- 
man kingdoms  by  a  marriage  with  Beatrice,  heiress  of 
Burgundy,  compelled  the  Poles  again  to  pay  tribute,  and 
elevated  the  Duke  of  Bohemia  to  the  rank  of  king. 

In  his  second  Italian  campaign  (1158 — 1162),  Frederick  201 
placed  Milan  (which  had  been  perseveringly  enlarging  its  c 
territories)  under  the  ban  of  the  empire,  and  laid  siege  to 
the  city.  After  sustaining  great  hardships,  the  Milanese 
signed  a  capitulation,  one  of  the  principal  conditions  of 
which  was,  that  the  election  of  their  magistrates  should 
thenceforward  be  subject  to  the  emperor's  approval.  At 
a  diet  held  on  the  Roncalian  plain  near  Piacenza,  the  rela- 
tions of  Italy  to  the  emperor  were  settled  on  terms  exceed- 
ingly advantageous  to  the  latter.  Even  the  Milanese  were  D 
willing  to  accept  of  the  new  constitution,  although  it  deprived 
them  of  the  right  secured  to  them  by  the  capitulation  of 
electing  their  own  magistrates,  who  were  thenceforth  to 
be  nominated  by  the  emperor  himself.  An  attempt  on  the 
part  of  the  citizens  of  Milan  to  re-assert  this  right,  occa- 
sioned a  fresh  war.  After  a  siege  of  two  years,  Milan 
surrendered  unconditionally  ;  the  fortifications  of  the  city 
were  dismantled,  and  the  inhabitants,  after  sustaining  fresh 
humiliations,  were  compelled  to  establish  themselves  in 


100  *  THE    MIDDLE    AGES.      [202 205.    §  43. 

(201)  four  separate  townships.  A  double  election  having  been 
A  made  by  the  college  of  cardinals,  Victor  IV.,  and  after  his 
death  Paschal  III.,  were  recognized  by  Frederick  and  the 
bishops  immediately  under  his  influence,  in  opposition  to 
Alexander  III.,  who  was  supported  by  a  large  majority  of 
the  priesthood. 

202  In  his  third   visit  to  Italy  (1163)  without  an    army, 
Frederick,  who  had  been  excommunicated  by  Pope  Alex- 
ander III.,  endeavored  to  allay  the  discontent  occasioned 
by  the  severity  of  his  functionaries. 

203  In  his  fourth  Italian  campaign  (1166 — 1163)  he  com- 
B  pelled  the  Romans  to  receive  Paschal  III.  in  the  place  of 

Alexander  III.,  who  had  fled  from  the  city.  Frederick 
and  his  consort  were  crowned  by  the  new  pope  ;  but  soon 
afterwards  a  frightful  pestilence  well-nigh  annihilated  his 
army,  and  compelled  him  to  re-cross  the  Alps  in  disguise, 
and  almost  alone.  The  Lombard  cities,  being  unable  to 
obtain  redress  for  the  cruelties  perpetrated  by  the  imperial 
governors,  entered  into  a  confederacy,  re-established  the 
exiled  Milanese  in  Milan,  and  built  a  fortress,  to  which, 
in  defiance  of  the  emperor,  they  gave  the  name  of  Alex- 
andria. 

204  In  his  fifth  campaign  (1174 — 1178)  he  was  abandoned 
c  by  Henry  the  Lion  during  the  siege  of  Alexandria,  and  in 

consequence  of  this  defection  was  compelled,  after  sustain- 
ing a  defeat  at  Legnano  on  the  Ticino (1176)  to  conclude 
(at  Venice)  a  peace  with  Alexander  III.,  and  an  armistice 
with  the  Lombards  for  six  years ;  at  the  expiration  of  which 
a  formal  peace  was  concluded  at  Constance.  By  this 
new  treaty  the  right  was  confirmed  to  the  emperor  of 
appointing  magistrates  and  levying  taxes  ;  the  cities  being 
permitted  to  retain  their  own  laws  and  institutions,  and  to 
continue  members  of  the  confederacy  which  they  had 
formed  a  few  years  previously. 

205  On  his  return  to  Germany,  Frederick  published  the  ban 
D  of  the  empire  against  Henry  the  Lion,  (who  had  neglected 

to  appear  after  being  five  times  cited),  gave  Bavaria  to  the 
Count  Palatine  Otho  of  Wittelsbach,  and  West  Saxony  to 
the  Archbishop  of  Cologne,  conferred  the  dignity  of  Duke 
.of  Saxony  on  Count  Bernard  of  Anhalt,  and  having  sub- 
dued Henry  after  a  war  of  two  years,  released  him  from 
the  ban,  and  restored  his  family  estates  of  Brunswick  and 


205,  207.  §  43.]     THE  GERMAN  EMPIRE.  101 

Limeburg,  on  condition    of  his    absenting  himself  from  (205) 
Germany  for  three  years.     Henry  acceded  to  these  terms,  A* 
and  sought  an  asylum   at  the  court  of  his  father-in-law, 
Henry  II.  king  of  England. 

After  holding  a  brilliant  diet  at  Mainz  (1184),  at  which  206 
his  two  eldest  sons,  Henry  and  Frederick,  were  admitted  to 
the  degree  of  knighthood,  Frederick  appeared  for  the  sixth 
time  in  Italy,  where  he  was  received  with  enthusiasm,  and 
celebrated  in  the  city  of  Milan,  which  had  been  lately 
rebuilt,  the  marriage  of  his  eldest  son,  the  Roman  King 
Henry,  with  Constance,  daughter  of  Roger  II.,  and  heiress 
of  the  kingdom  of  Apulia  and  Sicily, — For  an  account  of 
his  crusade  and  death,  see  pages  89,  90. 

8.  Henry  VI.  (1190—1197). 

Henry,  who  had  governed  the  empire  as  regent,  during  207 
the  absence  of  his  father  in  the  Holy  Land,  hastened  into  B 
Italy  on  receiving  intelligence  of  the  death  of  William  II. 
of  Sicily,  for  the  purpose  of  securing  the  birthright  of  his 
consort ;  but  the  Sicilians,  who  hated  the  Germans,  had 
already  placed  on  the  throne  Count  Tancred,  an  illegiti- 
mate scion  of  the  Norman  royal  house.  Henry,  after 
receiving  the  imperial  crown  at  Rome,  advanced  by  forced 
marches  to  Naples,  but  was  soon  compelled  by  the  sick- 
liness  of  his  troops,  and  the  intelligence  which  reached  him 
of  his  brother's  death,  to  return  to  Germany.  The  ransom  c 
of  Richard  Cceur  de  Lion  (see  page  90),  afforded  him  the 
means  of  undertaking  a  second  campaign  to  Italy,  where 
all  opposition  had  ceased  since  the  death  of  Tancred.  At 
Palermo,  the  crown  of  Sicily  was  added  to  the  four  which 
he  already  possessed.  The  discovery  of  an  unsuccessful 
conspiracy  furnished  the  emperor  with  a  pretext  for  in- 
flicting the  most  terrible  punishments  on  his  enemies. 
Tancred's  widow  and  daughters  were  thrown  into  prison,  D 
his  son  William  deprived  of  his  eyes,  and  archbishops, 
bishops,  counts,  and  nobles,  put  to  death  by  tortures  too 
horrible  to  relate.  These  acts  of  cruelty,  together  with 
his  treatment  of  Richard  Cosur  de  Lion,  provoked  the 
pope  (Coelestine  III.)  to  pronounce  sentence  of  excommu- 
nication on  Henry.  A  plan  which  he  had  long  cherished, 
of  making  the  imperial  dignity  hereditary  in  his  family, 
was  rendered  abortive  by  the  opposition  of  the  nobility, 


102  THE   MIDDLE   AGES.         [208 — 210.   $43. 

(207)  especially  of  the  higher  orders  of  the  clergy.  The  follow- 
A  ing  year,  during  his  preparations  for  the  conquest  of  the 
Byzantine  empire,  Henry  suddenly  expired  at  Messina,  to 
the  great  delight  of  all  the  Italians. 

208  Henry  the  Lion  had  returned  from  England  to  Ger- 
many, where  he  found  many  adherents;  but  all  his  attempts 
to  recover  his  former  possessions  ended  in  disappointment. 
He  died  at  Brunswick,  in  the  year  1195. 

4.  Philip  of  Swabia  (1198—1208). 
Otho  IV.  (1198—1215.) 

209  After  Henry's  death,  the  German  nobles  were  divided  into 
B  two  parties  :    that  of  the  Hohenstaufen,  which  supported 

Henry's  youngest  brother,  Philip  of  Swabia  (Henry's 
son  Frederick  being  scarcely  three  years  old  when  his  father 
died) ;  and  the  Guelphic,  which  chose  Otho,  second  son  of 
Henry  the  Lion.  Innocent  III.  (1198 — 1216),  to  whose 
arbitration  the  disputed  election  was  referred,  decided  in 
favor  of  Otho.  Philip,  who  had  conferred  the  hereditary 
sovereignty  of  Bohemia  on  Ottocar(1198),  and  had  already 
obtained  some  advantages  over  Otho,  and  entered  into 
negotiations  with  the  pope,  was  murdered  at  Bamberg,  in 
the  year  1208,  by  the  Count  Palatine  Otho  of  Wittels- 
bach,  to  whom  he  had  promised  one  of  his  daughters  in 
marriage,  and  neglected  to  fulfil  the  engagement. 
110  The  first  act  of  Otho's  reign,  after  the  death  of  his  rival, 

c  was  to  place  Otho  of  Wittelsbach  under  the  ban  of  the 
empire,  and  command  his  assassination.  After  effecting  a 
reconciliation  with  the  house  of  Hohenstaufen  by  means  of 
a  marriage  with  Beatrice,  the  youngest  daughter  of  Philip 
of  Swabia,  Otho  visited  Rome,  and  received  the  Italian  and 
imperial  crowns  ;  but  soon  afterwards  having  involved 
himself  in  a  dispute  with  Pope  Innocent  III.,  through  an 
attempt  to  re-establish  the  imperial  authority  in  Italy,  he 

D  conquered  Apulia,  and  attacked  the  King  of  Sicily,  who 
happened  to  be  the  pope's  ward.  Innocent  immediately 
excommunicated  him,  and  invited  the  German  nobles  to 
confirm  their  former  election  of  Frederick,  the  only  sur- 
viving prince  of  the  house  of  Hohenstaufen,  who  was 
crowned  at  Aix-la-Chapelle  in  1215.  Otho,  who  pre- 
viously to  this  event  had  been  defeated  by  the  French  king, 


211.    §43.]  THE    GERMAN    EMPIRE.  103 

Philip  Augustus,  at  Bovines,  in  Flanders  (where  he  was  (210) 
assisted  by  his  ally,  King  John  of  England),  was  compelled  A 
to  retire  to  his  hereditary  estate  of  Brunswick,  where  he 
died  (at  Harzburg)  in  1218. 

5.  Frederick  II.  (1215—1250). 

On  his  accession,  Frederick  had  promised  the  pope,  211 
(1)  that  thenceforward  the  German  and  Sicilian  crowns 
should  be  disunited ;  and  (2)  that  he  would  undertake  a 
crusade.  Both  these  engagements  were  violated  ;  the  first 
by  his  nominating  his  son  Henry  (to  whom  he  had  resigned 
the  kingdom  of  Sicily)  to  be  his  successor  on  the  German 
throne,  and  causing  him  to  be  crowned  Roman  king  in  1222 ; 
and  the  second  (which  he  had  renewed  at  his  coronation), 
by  his  deferring  the  crusade  until  the  year  1227,  the  inter- 
vening time  being  occupied  in  arranging  the  affairs  of  his 
hereditary  estates.  On  his  return  from  Palestine,  Frede-  B 
rick  found  Apulia  in  the  occupation  of  the  papal  troops ; 
and  having  re-conquered  that  province,  effected  a  recon- 
ciliation with  the  pope,  through  the  intervention  of  Her- 
man of  Salza,  grand  master  of  the  Teutonic  order,  and 
thoroughly  reformed  the  legal  code  of  his  hereditary  domi- 
nions, he  re-visited  Germany,  where  his  son  Henry  had 
raised  the  standard  of  rebellion  during  his  absence.  Henry 
was  taken,  solemnly  disinherited  at  Mainz,  and  thrown  into 
prison,  where  he  remained  until  his  death  in  1242.  Ate 
the  same  diet,  Frederick  conferred  on  Otho  [the  Child]  the 
allodes  of  his  father,  to  be  held  thenceforward  as  the  here- 
ditary duchy  of  Brunswick  Liineburg,  with  succession  in 
the  female  as  well  as  the  male  line.  After  proclaiming  a 
general  peace  throughout  Germany,  the  emperor  revisited 
Italy,  for  the  purpose  of  chastising  those  Lombard  cities 
which  had  taken  part  with  his  eldest  son,  leaving  the 
second,  Conrad,  to  administer  the  affairs  of  the  kingdom 
during  his  absence.  Having  reduced  all  the  cities  to  sub-  D 
mission  with  the  exception  of  four,  and  obtained  a  decisive 
victory  atCortenuova  (1237)  by  the  aid  of  his  general, 
Ezzelino  Romano,  Frederick  summoned  the  Milanese  to 
surrender  at  discretion,  but  was  prevented  from  attaining 
his  object,  by  a  misunderstanding  with  Pope  Gregory  IX., 
in  consequence  of  the  elevation  of  the  emperor's  natural 


104  THE    MIDDLE    AGES.      [212 214.    §43. 

(211)  son,  Enzio,  to  the  throne  of  Sardinia,  of  which  the  sove- 
A  reignty  was  claimed  by  the  holy  see,  as  a   part  of  St. 
Peter's  patrimony. 

212  Sentence  of  excommunication  was  passed  on  Frederick ; 
but  the  endeavors  of  the  pope  to  place  a  rival  on   the 
imperial  throne  were  unsuccessful.    About  the  same  time, 
Russia   and  Poland  were  overrun  by  the  Mongols,  who 
penetrated  as  far  as   Silesia,    and  defeated  the  army  of 
Henry  the  Pious,  duke  of  Lower  Silesia,  at  a  place  called 
from    this    engagement  Wahlstatt,  or  the  battle-field. 
Then  they  marched  through  Morovia  and  Hungary,  and 
after  sustaining  a  defeat  somewhere  in  Austria,  retired  to 
the  steppes,  whence  they  had  originally  sallied  forth. 

213  In  the  same  year,  Gregory  IX.  died,  at  the  age  of  one 
B  hundred  years.     In  the  year  1243,  Pope  Innocent  IV.  fled 

to  Lyons,  where  he  called  together  a  general  council,  and 
solemnly  deposed  the  emperor  and  his  son  Conrad.  The 
bishops  then  elected  the  Landgrave  Henry  Raspe  of 
T  h  u  r  i  n  g  i  a  ( 1 246),  whose  elevation  to  the  throne  by  the 
votes  of  the  clergy,  without  the  consent  of  the  temporal 
electors,  procured  him  the  nick-name  of  the  "  Parson's 
King"  (der  Pfaffenkonig).  The  usurper  obtained  some 
advantages  near  Frankfort ;  but  died  in  the  following  year 
at  the  Wartburg,  in  consequence  of  wounds  received  in  an 
c  engagement  in  the  neighborhood  of  Ulm.  The  choice  of 
the  th  ree  Rhenish  archbishops  then  fell  on  C  o  u  n  t  W  i  1 1  i  a  m 
of  Holland,  who  was  also  supported  by  one  of  the  tem- 
poral electors,  the  King  of  Bohemia.  Leaving  his  son 
Conrad  to  oppose  the  usurper  in  Germany,  Frederick,  in 
conjunction  with  his  natural  son  Enzio  (who  was  taken 
prisoner  in  a  bloody  engagement  near  Fossalta),  and  his 
general,  Ezzelino  Romano,  resumed  the  war  in  Lornbardy, 
which  continued  with  various  success  until  his  death  (at 
Firenzuelo,  near  Luceria),  in  1250. 

6.  Conrad  IV.  (1250—1254).     William  (1256). 

214  After  sustaining  a  defeat  at  Oppenheim,  Conrad  quitted 
D  Germany,  where  the  mendicant  friars  were  preaching  a 

crusade  against  him,  and  sought  an  asylum  in  Apulia, 
which  was  occupied  by  the  forces  of  his  illegitimate  bro- 
ther Manfred.  He  died  in  1254,  leaving  behind  him  one 


215 — 217.  §44,45.]     THE  TWO  SICILIES.  105 

son,  named  Conradin,  an  infant  of  two  years  old.     Almost  (214) 
the  only  public  act  of  William  of  Holland  was  the  giving  A. 
his  sanction  to  a  confederacy  which  had  been  formed  by  a 
number  of  towns  on  the  Rhine  about  the  time  of  his  own 
election.     He  was  slain  in  a  frozen  morass,  by  the  inha- 
bitants of  Friesl  and,  from  whom  he  had  attempted  to  extort 
tribute. 

§  44.   The  interregnum  in  Germany  (1257 — 1273). 

So  distracted  was  the  empire  at  this  period  of  our  history,  215 
that  no  native  prince  would  suffer  himself  to  be  put  in  B 
nomination  as  William's  successor :  the  choice,  therefore, 
of  the  electors  fell  on  two  foreigners,  Richard  of  Corn- 
wall (who  obtained  the  majority  of  votes),  and  Alfonso 
of  Castille.  The  former,  who  was  crowned  at  Aix-la- 
Chapelle,  visited  Germany  four  times.  After  his  death,  in 
1272,  Alfonso,  who  had  never  quitted  Spain  since  his  elec- 
tion, was  set  aside  by  the  electors,  and  Count  Rudolph,  of 
Habsburg,  raised  to  the  imperial  throne,  in  1273,  chiefly 
through  the  influence  of  the  Archbishop  of  Mainz. 

§  45.   The  kingdom  of  the  two  Sicilies  (1130 — 1282). 

a.  Under  the  Normans  (1130 — 1194).    The  immediate  216 
successors  of  Roger  II.,  founder  of  the  kingdom  of  the  Two  c 
Sicilies  (see  §  25,  D),  and  conqueror  of  the  northern  coast 

of  Africa,  from  Tunis  to  Tripoli,  were  William  I.,surnamed 
the  Bad,  who  lost  the  possessions  of  the  Sicilian  crown  in 
Africa;  and  William  (II.)  the  Good.  The  legitimate  suc- 
cessors of  the  latter  were  Constance,  daughter  of  Roger  II., 
and  her  consort,  the  emperor  Henry  VI. ;  but  the  throne 
was  usurped  during  a  period  of  five  years,  by  Tancred,  a 
natural  son  of  Roger  II.,  and  his  son  William  III. 

b.  Under  the  Hohenstaufen  (1194—1266).     Henry  I.    217 
(VI.)  was  succeeded  by  his  son  Frederick  I.  (II.)  a  child  D 

of  three  years  old,  who  was  placed  under  the  guardianship 
of  the  pope.  This  sovereign  transferred  the  royal  residence 
from  Palermo  to  Naples  (where  he  founded  a  university), 
and  gave  the  nation  a  new  code  of  laws,  most  of  which 
were  borrowed  from  the  ancient  Norman  constitutions. 
All  peculiar  jurisdictions  were  abolished,  and  thus  a  check 
5* 


106  THE    MIDDLE    AGES.      [218 220.    §46. 

(217)  was  given  to  the  progress  of  immorality  and  luxury.  His 
A  son  Conrad  IV.  left  behind  him  one  son,  named  Conradin, 
a  minor,  whose  guardian,  Manfred,  assumed  the  crown 
without  the  sanction  of  his  feudal  sovereign  the  pope.  On 
receiving  intelligence  of  this  proceeding,  Urban  conferred 
the  kingdom  on  Charles  of  Anjou,  brother  of  St.  Louis 
of  France.  In  the  year  1266,  a  battle  was  fought  near 
Benevento,  in  which  Manfred  lost  his  life. 
218  c.  Under  the  house  of  Anjou  (1266— 1282).  The  ad- 
B  herents  of  Manfred  fled  to  Germany,  and  joined  the  army 
of  Conradin,  who  entered  Italy  accompanied  by  his  friend 
Frederick  of  Austria,  and  after  sustaining  a  defeat  at 
Tagliacozzo,  or  Scurcola,  in  the  neighborhood  of  Alba 
(August  23),  was  taken  prisoner  and  executed  (with  his 
companion)  in  the  market-place  of  Naples  (1268).  On 
the  scaffold  he  bequeathed  his  claims  to  Peter  III.  of 
Arragon,  Manfred's  son-in-law.  The  flames  of  discontent, 
kindled  by  the  insolence  and  tyranny  of  Charles  of  Anjou, 
burst  forth  on  Easter- Monday,  1282,  during  the  Vesper 
service  at  Palermo  (the  Sicilian  vespers),  when  all  the 
Frenchmen  in  the  island  were  massacred,  and  the  crown 
of  Sicily  placed  on  the  head  of  Peter  of  Arragon,  Charles 
still  retaining  the  kingdom  of  Naples. 


§  46.  France  (1108—1270). 

219  5.  Louis  (VI.)  the  Fat  (1108— 1137).    The  gradual 
c  abolition  of  serfdom  and  the  formation  of  free  guilds,  or 

companies  (communes)  in  the  cities,  contributed  in  no 
small  degree  to  the  consolidation  of  the  sovereign  authority, 
and  the  depression  of  the  powerful  vassals  of  the  crown. 
Normandy  was  still  held  by  the  King  of  England  as  a 
French  fief,  in  spite  of  three  attempts  made  by  Louis  VI. 
to  restore  Robert,  duke  of  that  country,  who  had  been 
deposed  and  imprisoned  by  his  brother,  Henry  I. 

220  6.  Louis  VII.  (1137 — 1180)  was  persuaded  by  the 
D  Abbot  Bernard  of  Clairvaux  to  take  part  in  the  second 

crusade  (see  page  89),  during  which  the  affairs  of  his 
kingdom  were  well  administered  by  the  Abbot  Suger.  On 
nis  return,  Louis  divorced  his  wife  Eleonora,  heiress  of 
Poitou,  Guienne,  and  Gascony,  who  immediately  married 


221.    §46.]  FRANCE.  107 

Hsnry,  duke  of  Normandy  and  count  of  Anjou.     Two  (220) 
years  later,  on  the  accession  of  this  prince  to  the  English  A 
throne,  the  whole  western  half  of  France  was  annexed  to 
England. 

7.  Philip  II.  (1180 — 1223),  surnamed  Augustus  (on 221 
account  of  his  conquests),  quarrelled  with  Richard  Cceur 
de  Lion  during  the  third  crusade,  and  made  an  unsuccess- 
ful attempt  on  the  English  possessions  in  France.  On  the 
other  hand,  Richard's  successor,  John  (surnamed  Lack- 
land), whom  Philip  had  in  vain  cited  to  appear  before  the 
chamber  of  peers  at  Paris,  and  clear  himself  from  the 
charge  of  having  murdered  his  nephew,  Arthur  of  Brittany, 
was  compelled  to  relinquish  all  his  French  fiefs  except 
Guienne.  By  the  consolidation  of  these  fiefs,  the  crown  of 
France  obtained  an  influence  infinitely  greater  than  that 
possessed  by  its  vassals  individually.  King  John  having  B 
quarrelled  with  the  pope  respecting  the  election  of  an 
Archbishop  of  Canterbury,  Innocent  III.  excommunicated 
him,  and  invited  Philip  II.  to  take  possession  of  England. 
An  arrangement1  was  subsequently  effected,  by  which  John 
consented  to  hold  his  territories  as  a  fief  of  the  see  of 
Rome  ;  but,  notwithstanding  this  change  in  the  aspect  of 
affairs,  Philip,  who  had  obtained  a  victory  at  Bovines  over 
John  and  his  allies  (the  Emperor  Otho  IV.  and  the  Count 
of  Flanders),  sent  his  son  Louis  into  England,  whence  he 
was  expelled  at  the  end  of  a  year.  During  the  progress  of  c 
these  events  a  fierce  civil  war  was  raging  in  the  south  of 
France,  where  the  A 1  big enses  (a  designation  common  to 
several  sects  which  had  arisen  in  that  quarter  of  the  king- 
dom, especially  in  the  province  of  Albigeois,  towards  the 
close  of  the  twelfth  century)  had  refused  to  recognize 
either  the  spiritual  or  secular  authority  of  the  pope,  and 
placing  themselves  under  the  protection  of  Count  Rai- 
mond  VI.  of  Thoulouse,  had  destroyed  several  churches 
and  ill-treated  the  clergy.  Sentence  of  excommunication  D 
having  been  passed  on  the  count  by  Pope  Innocent  III., 
and  preachers  sent  forth  to  proclaim  a  crusade  against  the 
heretics,  the  cities  of  Beziers  arid  Carcassonne  were  laid  in 
ashes  (1209),  the  inhabitants  butchered  without  distinction 
of  age  or  sex,  and  the  greater  part  of  Languedoc  overrun 
by  the  crusaders.  Origin  of  the  "pairs  de  France"  (six 
temporal,  viz;,  the  dukes  of  Normandy,  Guienne,  and  Bur- 


108  THE  MIDDLE  AGES.    [222,  223.  §  46. 

(221)  gundy, the  counts  of  Thoulouse, Champagne,  and  Flanders; 
A  and  six  spiritual,  viz.  the  Archbishop  of  Rheims  and  five 
bishops) ;   and  of  appeals  from  the  baronial  courts  to  the 
king. 

222  8.  Louis  VIII.  (1213—1226)  undertook  a  fresh  cru- 
sade against  the  Albigenses  and  Raimond  VII.,  and  died 
before  its  termination. 

223  9.  Louis  IX.  (St.  Louis,  1226— 1270),  the  most  pious 
prince  of  the  middle  ages,  commenced  his  reign  under  the 
guardianship  of  his  mother,  Blanche  of  Castille,  and  termi- 
nated the  Albigensian  war  in  1229,  by  concluding  a  peace 
with  Raimond  VII.,  who  was  compelled  to  cede  a  portion 
of  his  dominions  to  the  crown,  and  bequeath  the  remainder 

B  to  his  son-in-law,  a  brother  of  the  king.  The  Albigenses 
were  exterminated  partly  through  the  vigilance  of  the 
recently-established  inquisition,  and  the  exertions  of  the 
Dominican  preachers,  and  partly  by  actual  violence. — For 
his  first  crusade,  see  page  92.  A  permanent  peace  with 
England  was  established  by  the  restoration  of  four  pro- 
vinces south  of  the  Charente  to  Henry  lit.,  who,  on  his 
part,  consented  to  abandon  his  claims  to  all  other  portions 
of  the  French  territory  formerly  possessed  by  England, 
and  to  take  the  oath  of  feudal  allegiance  to  Louis ;  after 
which  he  was  enrolled  among  the  peers  of  France,  as  duke 

c  of  Guienne.  For  the  preservation  of  peace  at  home,  all 
private  feuds  were  strictly  forbidden,  wager  of  battle 
abolished  on  the  estates  belonging  to  the  crown,  the  rights 
of  the  Church  secured  by  a  pragmatic  sanction,  and  the 
baronial  jurisdiction  gradually  subjected  to  the  royal 
courts,  which  were  duly  supplied  with  advocates. — For 
his  second  crusade  and  death,  see  page  92. 


224—228.  §47.]  ENGLAND.  109 

§  47.  England  (1066—1272). 
a.  Under  Norman  kings  (1066 — 1154). 

William  I.  t  1087.  224 


Robert,  William  II.         Henry  I.  Adelaide, 

Duke  of  Normandy.       t  1100.  t  1135.  mar.  Stephen, 

/ r-* v    Count  of  Blois. 


Matilda, 


mar.  1.  The  Emperor  Henry  V.        Stephen, 
2.  Geoffrey  Plantagenet,          King,  t  1154. 
Count  of  Anjou. 

Henry  II.  1 1189. 

1.  William  (I.)  the  Conqueror  (1066— 1087),  in- 225 
troduced  the  feudal  system  into  England,  and  divided  the  B 
conquered  territory  into  60,215  portions,  of  which  14,000 
were  retained  by  the  crown,  and  20,215  conferred  on  the 
clergy,  who  were  bound,  no  less  than  the  temporal  barons, 

to  render  military  service  for  their  fiefs.  As  the  best 
security  for  the  stability  of  his  usurped  throne,  William 
filled  all  the  great  offices  of  state  with  Normans,  intro- 
duced the  French  language  into  the  courts  of  law  and 
schools,  and  published  an  exact  register  of  the  lands  of 
England,  which  still  exists,  under  the  title  of  Domesday 
Book. 

2.  William    (II.)  Rufus  (1087—1100),  succeeded  226 
his  father  on  the  English  throne,  to  the  exclusion  of  his  c 
elder  brother  Robert,  who  inherited  the  dukedom  of  Nor- 
mandy, and  joined  the  crusaders. 

3.  Henry  I.  (1100— 1135)  seized  on  the  crown  during  227 
the  absence  of  his  elder  brother  in  Palestine,  and  on  his 
return  robbed  him  also  of  Normandy,  which  was  united  to 
England  in  1106.     Robert  was  deprived  of  his  eyes,  and 
died  in  prison.     A  charter  by  which  the  severity  of  the  D 
feudal    constitution  was    in    some   degree  qualified,  was 
granted  by  Henry  to  the  nobility  and  the  city  of  London. 
The  recognition  by  the  nobility  of  Henry's  daughter  Ma- 
tilda, and  her  second  husband  Geoffrey  Plantagenet,  intro- 
duced the  principle  of  female  succession  into  England;  but 
Henry  having  died  in  Normandy,  a  rival  candidate  for  the 
throne  appeared  in  the  person  of 

4.  Stephenof  Blois,  who  was  defeated  by  the  forces  228 


110  THE   MIDDLE    AGES.       [229—231.    §47, 

(228)  of  Matilda  near  Lincoln,  thrown  into  prison,  and  only  per- 
A  mitted  to  retain  the  crown  during  his  life,  on  condition  of 
nominating  Matilda's  son  Henry  as  his  successor. 

b.  Under  the  four  first  kings  of  the  house  of  An- 
jou  or  Plantagenet  (1154 — 1272). 

229  1.  Henry  II.  (1154—1189)  inherited  Normandy  from 
his  mother,  and  Anjou,  Maine,  and  Touraine,  from  his 
father;  and  held  Guienne  and  Poitou  (see  §  45)  in  right 
of  his  wife.     The  attempts  of  Henry  to  subject  (by  the 
constitutions  of  Clarendon)  ecclesiastics   to  the  jurisdic- 
tion of  the  temporal  courts  in  matters  purely  secular,  and 
to  restrain  the  practice  of  appealing  to  Rome,  were  de- 
feated by  the  pertinacity  of  Thomas  a  Becket,  archbishop 
of  Canterbury,  who  was  murdered  in  his  own  cathedral  by 

B  four  noblemen.  To  satisfy  the  people,  Henry  did  penance 
at  the  archbishop's  tomb.  Ireland,  which  was  distracted 
by  intestine  feuds,  was  conquered  in  1172,  and  the  King  of 
Scotland  compelled  to  take  the  oath  of  vassalage  to  the 
crown  of  England.  Henry  died  of  grief,  occasioned  by 
repeated  acts  of  rebellion,  committed  at  the  instigation  of 
his  consort,  by  his  two  sons,  who  were  abetted  in  their 
treason  by  the  King  of  France. 

230  2.   Richard  Cceur  de  Lion  (1189— 1199)  sold  his 
c  feudal  supremacy  over  Scotland,  passed  three  years  in 

Palestine,  and  two  in  a  German  prison,  and  lost  his  life 
before  a  fortress  during  a  war  which  he  had  undertaken 
against  France,  in  consequence  of  the  support  afforded  by 
that  power  to  his  rebellious  brother  John. 
281  3.  John  (surnamed  Lackland)  (1199 — 1216  was 
deprived  of  all  his  French  fiefs,  except  Guienne,  as  a 
punishment  for  the  murder  of  his  nephew,  Arthur  of  Brit- 
tany, whose  claims  to  the  English  crown  were  supported  by 
D  Philip  Augustus.  About  the  same  time,  John  was  excommu- 
nicated by  Pope  Innocent  III.  (in  consequence  of  a  dispute 
respecting  the  nomination  of  an  archbishop  of  Canterbury), 
and  the  sovereignty  of  England  offered  to  the  King  of 
France  (compare  §  46).  Having  effected  a  reconciliation 
with  the  pope,  by  consenting  to  hold  his  kingdom  as  a 
fief  of  the  Holy  See,  John  made  an  unsuccessful  attempt  to 
abrogate  the  charter  of  English  liberty  (Magna  Charta 


232.    §47.]  ENGLAND.  Ill 

libertatum),  which  his  insurgent  barons  had  forced  him  (231) 
to  sign  in  1215,  and  soon  afterwards  died  of  fever,  occa-  A 
sioned  by  the  fatigue  of  a  precipitate  flight. 

4.  Henry  III.  (1216 — 1272)  was  only  ten  years  of  age  232 
when  he  ascended  the  throne.  Prince  Louis  of  France, 
who  had  assumed  the  title  of  King  of  England,  in  con- 
sequence of  the  pope's  invitation  (compare  page  107),  was 
defeated  by  the  Earl  of  Pembroke  (Henry's  guardian)  near 
Lincoln,  and  also  in  a  naval  engagement,  and  compelled 
to  renounce  his  claims.  Scarcely,  however,  was  Henry 
securely  seated  on  the  throne,  when  his  incapacity  mani- 
fested itself  in  the  injudicious  selection  of  his  generals  and 
ministers,  and  the  favor  shown  to  foreign  adventurers, 
as  well  as  in  the  oppression  of  his  own  subjects,  notwith- 
standing his  assurances  (renewed  during  a  period  of  thirty 
years,  on  the  occasion  of  every  fresh  subsidy)  that  their 
privileges  should  be  respected.  The  discontent  excited  by  B 
his  weakness  and  treachery  burst  forth  at  last  in  an  insur- 
rection of  the  barons  (1258,  headed  by  Henry's  brother- 
in-law,  Simon  de  Montfort,  earl  of  Leicester).  Henry  was 
compelled  to  assemble  a  parliament  at  Oxford,  and  commit 
the  administration  of  his  kingdom  to  a  council  composed  of 
twenty-four  barons.  An  attempt  on  the  part  of  the  king  c 
to  resume  the  reins  of  government,  occasioned  the  battle  of 
Lewes  (1264),  in  which  Henry  (with  his  brother,  Richard 
of  Cornwall,  king  of  Germany)  was  taken  prisoner,  and 
forced  to  purchase  his  freedom  by  consenting  to  re-establish 
the  council  of  barons.  The  haughty  demeanor  of  Leices- 
ter offended  the  barons;  but,  on  the  other  hand,  the  favor 
of  the  people  was  conciliated  by  his  calling  to  the  parlia- 
ment two  knights  from  each  county,  and  two  burgesses  as 
representatives  of  each  town,  thus  laying  the  foundation  of 
a  House  of  Commons.  Meanwhile  Edward,  the  heir-  D 
apparent  to  the  throne,  had  assembled  the  adherents  of  the 
king,  and  marched  to  Evesham,  where  a  battle  was  fought 
in  1265,  in  which  Leicester  was  slain,  and  the  baronial 
aristocracy  completely  crushed.  The  result  of  this  victory 
was  the  re- establishment  of  peace  between  the  king  and 
his  people. — For  an  account  of  the  termination  of  the  dis- 
putes with  France,  by  a  peace  with  Louis  IX.,  see  page  108. 


112  THE    MIDDLE    AGES.       [233—235.    §48,49. 


§  48.   Spain. 

233  1.  The  kingdom  established  by  the  Arabians  in  Spain 
A  remained  until  the  end  of  this  period  (1269)  in  close  con- 
nection with  the  empire  of  Morocco;    but  the    Moorish 
power,  both  in  Africa  and  in  the  peninsula,  had  been  gra- 
dually declining  since  the  defeat  of  their  forces  at  Tolosa 
(1212),  by  the  united  armies  of  the  kings  of  Arragon, 
Castille,  and  Navarre.     In  Spain  especially,  Christianity 
had  gradually  obtained  a  preponderance  over  Islamism, 
through  the  acquisition  of  provinces,  which  had  either  been 
re-conquered  from  the  unbelievers,  or  conferred  by  them 
as  fiefs  on  the  native  princes. 

234  2.  Christian  Spain,     a.  The  kingdom  of  Leon  and 
B  Castille  (compare  §  33,  2)  was  divided  by  Alfonso  VII. 

into  two  sovereignties  (1157),  which  were  re-united  by 
Ferdinand  the  Saint  (1230),  and  augmented  by  the  addi- 
tion of  several  Moorish  provinces  (Cordova,  Estremadura, 
Murcia,  Jaen,  and  Seville),  the  conquest  of  which  was 
principally  achieved  by  the  knights  of  the  three  Castilian 
orders  ( Alcantara,  Calatrava,  and  St.  Jago  de  Compostella), 
established  towards  the  middle  of  the  twelfth  century. 
His  son  Alfonso  X.  (surnamed  the  Wise)  was  elected 

c  King  of  Germany  (compare  §  44).  b.  Navarre  was  again 
separated  from  Arragon,  and  continued  to  be  an  indepen- 
dent kingdom  until  1284,  when  it  was  annexed  to  France. 
c.  On  the  other  hand,  Barcelona,  the  Balearic  isles,  and 
the  kingdom  of  Valencia,  were  added  to  the  kingdom  of 
Arragon,  the  first  through  the  marriage  of  Count  Raimond 
of  Barcelona  with  the  heiress  of  Arragon,  and  the  others 
by  the  sword  of  James  I.,  surnamed  the  Conqueror. 

D  Pedro  III.,  son  of  this  monarch,  whom  Conradin  imme- 
diately before  his  execution  had  nominated  heir  of  his 
claims  to  the  Neapolitan  throne,  became  King  of  Sicily 
after  the  Sicilian  vespers. 

§  49.  Portugal 

235  About  the  time  of  the  first  crusade  (1096),  Alfonso  VI., 
of  Castille,  granted  to  his  brave  son-in-law,  Henry,  duke 
of  Burgundy  (great-grandson  of  Hugh  Capet),  the  whole  of 
the  territory  between  the  Minho  and  Douro,  which  derived 


236.    §50.]  THE    BYZANTINE    EMPIRE.  113 

its  name  of  Portugal  from  the  city  of  Porto. J      The  capital  (235) 
was  Coirnbra.  Alfonso  I.,  who  had  been  enabled  to  extend  A 
the  boundaries  of  his  infant  kingdom  by  a  victory  over  the 
Arabians  at  Ourique  (1139),  assumed  the  title  of  king  (for 
the  recognition  of  which  he  engaged  to  pay  a  yearly  tribute 
to  the  pope),  obtained  a  constitution  for  his  new  kingdom 
from   the  Cortes  of  Lamego,  and  with  the  assistance  of 
some  English  and  North- German  crusaders,  wrested  Lis- 
bon from  the  infidels.     Alfonso  III.  further  enlarged  the 
kingdom  by  the  conquest  of  Algarves  in  1253. 

B.  The  East. 
§  50.   The  Byzantine  empire. 

1.  Under  the  Comneni  and  Dukas  (1157 — 1185].  236 
The  soldiers,  weary  of  their  dependence  on  the  two  prin-  B 
cesses  (compare  §  34),  had  placed  their  comrade  Isaac 
Comnenus  on  the  imperial  throne ;  but  the  newly-elected 
emperor  was  soon  compelled  by  bodily  infirmity  to  resign 
his  crown  and  retire  into  a  monastery.  A  friend  of  his 
house,  named  Constantine  Dukas,  was  then  invested  with 
the  purple,  which  he  bequeathed  to  his  wife(Eudocia),to  be 
held  in  trust  for  his  three  sons,  subject  to  the  condition  that 
the  empress  should  remain  unmarried.  Scarcely,  however,  c 
had  seven  months  expired,  when  Eudocia,  disregarding 
her  lord's  injunctions,  bestowed  her  hand  on  her  general, 
Romanus  Diogenes,  who  was  defeated  and  taken  prisoner 
in  a  war  with  the  Seldschuks.  After  a  short  captivity, 
Diogenes  was  generously  set  at  liberty  by  his  conquerors, 
and  returning  home,  found  his  wife  imprisoned  in  a  con- 
vent, and  the  throne  in  possession  of  Michael  VII.  (eldest 
son  of  Constantine  Dukas),  who  defeated  him  and  put  out 
his  eyes.  The  greater  part  of  Asia  Minor  had  been  D 
already  wrested  from  the  empire  by  the  Seldschuks  (hence 
the  Sultanate  of  Iconium,  or  Rum),  and  the  whole  of 
Lower  Italy  by  the  Norrnans,  when  the  Comneni  again 
ascended  the  throne.  Three  emperors  of  that  house,  each 
distinguished  for  his  bravery,  viz.  Alexius  Comnenus, 
his  son  Kalo-Johannes,  and  grandson  Manuel  (whose 
united  reigns  occupied  100  years,  1081 — 1180),  resisted 
manfully  the  encroachments  of  the  Seldschuks  in  the  east, 

[  l  Called  by  us  "  O  Porto,  the  port."] 


.        114  THE    MIDDLE    AGES.      [237 239.    §51. 

(236)  the  Normans  in  Lower  Italy,  and  the  Petschenegens  and 
A  Cumanes  in  the  north,  notwithstanding  the  feebleness  to 
which  the  empire  had  been  reduced  by  the  corruption  of 
the  court  and  the  struggles  of  party.  Manuel's  son, 
Alexius  II.  (a  minor)  was  murdered  after  a  short  reign  by 
his  guardian,  Andronicus,  whose  cruel  reign  of  three 
years  was  terminated  by  an  insurrection  of  Isaac  An- 
gel us,  a  collateral  relation  of  the  Comneni,  who  had 
been  condemned  to  suffer  an  ignominious  death. 

237  2.  Under  the  house  of  Angelus  (1185—1204). 
The   weak  Isaac  Angelus,  who    had  been  unable  to 
prevent   the    revolt  of  the  Bulgarians,  and    the    loss  of 
Cyprus,  was  set  aside  by  his  brother  Alexius  III.,  who 

B  put  out  his  eyes  and  threw  him  into  prison.  The  fourth 
crusade,  as  it  was  called,  was  undertaken. by  the  Vene- 
tians and  French,  for  the  purpose  of  replacing  him  on 
the  throne,  from  which  he  was  a  second  time  deposed  (see 
page  90). 

238  3.  The  Latin  empire  (1204— 1261).     For  an  ac- 
count of  this  empire,  as  well  as  those  of  Nicasa  and  Trebi- 
zond,  see  page  91. 

§  51.   The  Arabians. 

239  The    Caliphate   of  the    Abbasides    was    extin- 
c  guished  in  the  year  1258  by  the  Mongols,  who  stormed 

Bagdad  (the  only  city  still  possessed  by  the  caliphs),  and 
for  seven  days  deluged  its  streets  with  blood.  Motazem, 
the  fifty-sixth  and  last  caliph,  was  sewn  up  in  a  cow's  hide, 
and  dragged  by  the  conquerors  through  the  streets  of  his 
capital.  The  descendants  of  Prince  Hakim,  who  escaped 
the  general  destruction,  continued  to  exercise  a  spiritual 
supremacy  in  Egypt  (without  any  admixture  of  secular 
authority)  until  the  conquest  of  that  country  by  the  Turks 
Din  1517.  Of  the  African  dynasties,  theAglabides  and 
Edrisides  had  become  extinct  during  the  preceding  period  ; 
the  Fatimides  in  Egypt  were  overthrown  by  Nureddin  ;  and 
the  Morabethes,  who  had  founded  the  empire  of  Morocco  and 
conquered  the  south  of  Spain,  were  expelled  by  the  Almo- 
hades  (whose  supremacy  terminated  in  1269).  The  whole, 
therefore,  of  Arabian  Africa  was  now  shared  by  three  re- 
cent dynasties  (the  Abuhassians,  Merinides,  and  Zianides), 


240,241.  §52,53.]  ARABIANS,  SELDSCHUKS,  ETC.        115 

who  had  already  from  time  to  time  obtained  possession  of  (239) 
particular  portions. 

§  52.   The  Seldschuks. 

About  fifty  years  before  the  commencement  of  the  cru-  240 
sades,  a  nomadic  Turkish  tribe,  named  the  Seldschuks,  A 
under  the  command  of  their  Sultan  Togrul  Beg,  a  grand- 
son of  the  Turkish  Emir  Seldschuk,  conquered  all  the 
countries  between  the  Ox  us  and  Euphrates,  and  having 
established  their  head-quarters  at  Bagdad  (where  their 
leader  enjoyed  the  dignity  of  emir  al  Omrah),  made  them- 
selves also  masters  of  Syria  and  Asia  Minor.  After  the  B 
death  of  their  third  Sultan  (Malek)  in  1092,  the  mighty 
empire,  which  in  its  palmy  days  extended  from  the  frontier 
of  China  to  the  Mediterranean,  and  from  Samarcand  to  the 
southern  coast  of  Arabia,  after  a  succession  of  civil  wars, 
was  split  into  five  small  governments,  which  during  the 
crusades  fell  into  the  hands  of  other  Turkish  hordes.  The 
kingdom  of  Iconium  alone  continued  to  exist,  although  in 
a  state  of  dependence  on  the  Mongols,  until  the  thirteenth 
century. 

§  53.   The  Mongols. 

The  Mongols,  a  nomadic  tribe  closely  connected  with  241 
the  Huns,  who  inhabited  the  trackless  plains  stretching  c 
southwards  from  Siberia  to  the  greater  Bucharia  and  the 
Desert  of  Kobi,  in  the  year  1206  conferred  the  title  of 
Dschingis-Khan  (i.e.  Khan  of  Khans),  on    Ternud 
Schin,  the  son  of  a  khan.     Under  the  command  of  this 
chieftain,  they  conquered  a  portion  of  northern    China, 
expelled     Mohammed,    sultan    of    the    Chowaresmians, 
(whose    dominions    extended     from    India    to    the    Cas- 
pian Sea),  invaded  Russia,  and  overthrew  the  Prince  of 
Kiev  (on  the  Kalka).      Under  the  four  sons  of  Dschingis-  D 
Khan  (among  whom  the  empire  of  Kiev  was  divided), 
the  whole  of  Northern  China  fell  into  the  hands  of  the 
Mongols,  who  then  overran  Russia,  Poland,  Silesia  (where 
they  were   victorious  in  the  bloody  battle  of  Wahlstadt, 
compare  page  104),  Moravia,  and  Hungary,  and  entering 
Austria,  sustained  a  defeat,  which  compelled  them  to  re-         4 
trace  their  march  through  Asia  Minor, — a  measure  which 
was  rendered  still  more  necessary  by  the  death  of  their 


116  THE  MIDDLE  AGES.    [24*2 245.  §54. 

(241)  great  khan.  In  the  year  1258  they  took  Bagdad,  and  put 
A  an  end  to  the  dynasty  of  the  Abbasides.  Towards  the  end 
of  the  thirteenth  century,  the  empire  of  the  Mongols,  which 
now  included  Thibet  and  southern  China,  had  reached  its 
widest  limits,  extending  from  the  wall  of  China  to  the 
frontier  of  Poland,  and  from  India  to  Siberia.  The  resi- 
dence of  the  great  khan  was  at  Pekin.  The  administra- 
tion of  the  provinces  was  committed  to  inferior  khans,  of 
the  race  of  Dschingis-Khan  ;  the  most  powerful  of  whom 
were  the  khans  of  Kaptschak  on  the  Wolga,  and  Dschag- 
atai  in  Turkestan. 

C.  The  North-East  of  Eurppe. 
§  54.   Scandinavia. 

242  1 .  Iceland  remained  independent  until  nearly  the  end 
Bof  this  period  (1261?),  when   it  became  a  province  of 

Norway.  In  no  country  were  the  ancient  Scandinavian 
manners,  language,  and  literature  so  little  affected  by 
the  influence  of  western  Europe,  of  which  scarcely  any 
traces  are  discernible,  except  in  the  ecclesiastical  consti- 
tution of  the  island. 

243  2.  In  Norway,  the  dynasty  of  the  legitimate  descend- 
ants of  Harald  Harfagr  expired  in  1103,  with  Magnus  III., 
whose  natural   children  threw  the  whole    kingdom    into 
confusion  by  their  contests  for  the  crown.     Iceland  and 
Greenland  were  annexed  to  Norway,  and  the  Hebrides 
sold  to  Scotland. 

244  3.  Sweden,  like  Norway,  was  distracted  during  this 
c  period  by  factions  and  civil  wars,  occasioned  not  so  much 

by  disputed  successions,  as  by  the  antagonism  which  sub- 
sisted between  the  Gothic  and  Swedish  races,  as  well  as 
between  the  Christians  and  heathens.  The  frequent  result 
of  these  disputes  was  the  division  of  Norway  into  two 
kingdoms,  at  first  into  Christian  and  heathen,  and  subse- 
quently into  a  Gothic  and  Swedish. 

245  4.   In  Denmark,  which   comprehended  also  southern 
D  Sweden,  or  Schonen,  the  reigning  family  was  that  of  the 

Estrides,  who  conquered  the  island  of  Riigen,  as  well  as 
the  whole  line  of  coast  from  Esthonia  to  Holstein,  together 
with  the  towns  of  Lubeck  and  Hamburg.  The  whole  of 
this  conquered  territory,  with  the  exception  of  northern 


246,  247.  §  55,  56.]     RUSSIA — POLAND.  117 

Esthonia,  was  afterwards  surrendered  by  Waldemar  II.  to  (245) 
the  Count  of  Schwerin,  as  the  price  of  his  liberation  from  A 
prison.  Since  the  abandonment  of  voyages  to  England,  the 
intercourse  between  the  two  countries  had  given  place  to 
an  intimate  connection  with  Germany  (especially  after  the 
conquest  of  the  south-eastern  shores  of  the  Baltic),  which 
produced  an  imitation  of  German  institutions,  especially  as 
regarded  the  creation  of  orders  of  chivalry,  and  the  establish- 
ment of  regulations  for  the  government  of  their  cities. 

§  55.   Russia. 

Besides  the  two  grand  principalities  of  Kiev  and  Vladi-  246 
mir,  there  existed  no  less  than  fifty  of  inferior  note.     In  B 
the  year  1238,  the  whole  of  Russia  was  occupied  (after  the 
victories  on  the   banks  of  the  Kalka  and  at  Sita)  by  the 
Mongols,  who  burnt  the  cities  of  Vladimir,  Moscow,  and 
Kiev.     Novgorod  alone  (which  had  been  a  distinct  prin- 
cipality since  1137)  retained  its  independence,  and  became 
in  1267  one  of  the  commercial  stations  of  the  Hanseatic 
league.     The  grand  principalities  were  permitted  to  re- 
main, their  rulers  engaging  to  pay  tribute  to  the  Mongols. 
During  this  period    of  dependence,  the  grand  prince  of  c 
Vladimir  (Jaroslav)  conquered  Finland,  and  his  son  Alex- 
ander, prince  of  Novgorod,  and  afterwards  of  Vladimir, 
obtained  a  brilliant  victory  over  the  Swedes  on  the  banks 
of  the  Neva.     Hence  his  surname  of  Nevskoi. 

§  56.  Poland  under  the  P lasts. 

During  this  period  Poland,  which  had  again  become  a  247 
dukedom,  and  now  comprehended  Silesia  and  eastern  Po- 
merania,  with  its  capital  Dantzic,  improved  rapidly  under 
the  influence  of  German  civilization,  notwithstanding  the 
wars  in  which  she  was  engaged  with  the  wild  tribes  on  her 
northern  and  eastern  frontiers,  and  the  civil  commotions 
occasioned  by  the  partition  of  the  dukedom  among  the 
four  sons  of  Boleslav  III.  The  new  sovereignties  were —  D 
1.  Cracow  and  Silesia;  2.  Great  Poland;  3.  Masovia 
and  Cujavia  ;  4.  Sendomir  and  Lublin.  In  addition  to  his 
dukedom  of  Cracow  and  Silesia,  the  eldest  exercised  a  sort 
of  feudal  supremacy  over  the  others.  Conrad,  duke  of 
Masovia,  being  too  feeble  to  withstand  the  attacks  of  the 
Prussians,  called  in  the  knights  of  the  Teutonic  order,  who 
were  rewarded  for  their  services  with  a  grant  of  the  ter- 
ritory of  Culm.  The  invasion  of  Poland  and  Silesia  by  the 


118  THE    MIDDLE    AGES.    [248 250.    §57 59. 

A  Mongols,  although  of  short  duration,  occasioned  fearful 
havoc,  but  no  actual  loss  of  territory. 

§  57.  Prussia. 

248  The  Prussians,  a  half-civilized  horde,  inhabiting  the  line 
of  coast  from  the  Vistula  to  the  Niemen,  not  only  resisted 
successfully  the  attempts  of  the  Poles  to  reduce  them  to 
submission,  under  pretence  of  converting  them  to  Chris- 
tianity, but  becoming  themselves  the  aggressors,  compelled 
Conrad,  duke  of  Masovia,  to  apply  for   assistance  to  the 
"  Brethren  of  the  Sword"  (an  order  originally  established 
in  Livonia),  and  subsequently  to  the  knights  of  the  Teutonic 

B  order.  After  an  obstinate  struggle,  in  which  they  were 
supported  during  a  period  of  fifty-three  years  (1230 — 
1283)  by  crowds  of  adventurers  from  Pomerania,  Austria, 
and  Brandenburg,  the  Teutonic  knights  became  masters  of 
Prussia,  where  they  founded  the  cities  of  Thorn,  Marien- 
werder,  Elbing,  &c.,  and  introduced  German  civilization. 
The  government  of  the  conquered  territory  was  adminis- 
tered by  a  provincial  master,  until  the  establishment  of  the 
order  itself  at  Marienberg,  in  the  year  1309. 

§  58.  Hungary  under  the  Arpads. 

249  Ladislav  the  Saint  (see  §  39)  was  succeeded  by  fifteen 
c  kings  of  the  Arpadic  family,  which  became  extinct  in  1301. 

During  the  whole  of  this  period  the  Hungarians  were  en- 
gaged in  wars  with  German  kings  and  dukes,  with  Venice, 
the  revolted  maritime  cities  of  Croatia  and  Dalmatia,  with 
the  Byzantine  emperors,  the  Bohemians,  Poles,  and  Rus- 
sians, and  in  domestic  feuds  occasioned  partly  by  disputed 
successions,  and  partly  by  insurrections  of  the  nobles,  who 
compelled  King  Andrew  II.  (after  his  return  from  Syria) 
D  to  grant  them  a  charter,  called  "  the  Golden  Book."  But 
the  heaviest  calamity  of  all  was  the  terrible  invasion  of 
the  Mongols,  in  1241.  Bela  IV.,  who  then  occupied  the 
throne,  was  compelled  to  seek  an  asylum  in  Dalmatia  ; 
but  on  his  return  he  exerted  himself  manfully  to  restore 
the  prosperity  of  his  kingdom,  which  had  been  well-nigh 
depopulated  by  the  war. 

§  59.  Religion,  Arts,  Manufactures,  fyc.,  during  the  Third 
Period. 

250  1.  The  Church.     The  attempts  of  Gregory  VII.  1o 
exalt  the  spiritual  above  the  temporal  power  were  followed 
up  by  his  successors,  particularly  by  Urban  II.,  Paschal  II., 


250.    §59.]  RELIGION,    ARTS,    ETC.  119 

Innocent  III.  and  IV.,  and  towards  the  end  of  this  period  (250) 
produced  not  only  the  complete  emancipation  of  the  Church  A 
from  secular  control,  but  the  elevation  of  the  pope  to  the 
rank  of  supreme  judge  over  all  temporal  princes,  whose 
crowns  were  placed  at  his  absolute  disposal.  At  the  same  B 
time,  the  ecclesiastical  authority  of  the  popes  was  strength- 
ened— I.  By  assemblies  of  the  Church,  in  which  term  are 
comprehended,  (1)  oecumenical  councils,  convoked  and  pre- 
sided over  by  the  pope  himself;  (2)  synods  held  annually 
at  Rome ;  and  (3)  provincial  synods  summoned  by  the 
pope's  legates.  II.  By  sending  legates  with  unlimited 
powers  to  all  the  countries  of  Europe.  III.  By  the  esta- 
blishment of  an  appeal  to  Rome  from  the  sentences  of 
metropolitans  and  bishops.  IV.  By  an  unscrupulous  ex- 
ercise of  the  right  of  suspending  refractory  sovereigns,  or 
placing  their  kingdoms  under  an  interdict.  The  monastic  c 
system  was  also  greatly  enlarged:  1.  By  the  establish- 
ment of  the  three  religious  orders  of  chivalry  in  Pales- 
tine, of  three  similar  orders  in  Spain,  and  of  the  order 
of  Knights  of  the  Sword  in  Livonia  (1199).  2.  By 
the  creation,  from  time  to  time,  of  fresh  orders,  with 
more  stringent  rules  of  discipline,  a.  The  Prgemonstra- 
tenses  (founded  by  S.  Norbert  of  Xanten,  at  Premontre, 
near  Laon).  b.  The  Trinitarians,  c.  The  Carmelites  (on 
Mount  Carmel).  d.  The  Dominicans,  or  Preachers  (founded 
by  S.  Dominic,  a  Spaniard),  especially  for  the  conversion 
of  heretics  in  the  south  of  France,  c.  The  Franciscans 
(founded  by  S.  Francis  of  Assisi).  The  rules  of  the  three 
last  enjoined  poverty,  in  the  strictest  sense  of  the  term. 
All  attempts  to  re-unite  the  Greek  and  Latin  churches  D 
were  fruitless ;  but,  on  the  other  hand,  the  Maronites,  and, 
to  a  certain  extent,  the  Armenians,  were  reconciled  to  the 
Church  of  Rome.  The  teaching  of  Peter  Abelard,  his  dis- 
ciple Arnold  of  Brescia,  and  other  schoolmen  of  the  twelfth 
century,  produced  a  variety  of  sects — the  Cathari  in  Ger- 
many and  Italy  ;  the  Waldenses,  or  Vaudois  (founded  by 
Peter  Waldes,  a  rich  merchant  of  Lyons) ;  and  the  Albi- 
genses,  in  the  south  of  France,  which  united  towards  the 
end  of  the  12th  century,  and  were  supported  by  many  of 
the  temporal  nobles  in  their  resistance  to  their  bishops.  For 
the  suppression  of  these  heresies1  crusades  were  preached, 

[  1  "  It  is  beyond  a  doubt  that  many  of  these  sectaries  [the  Cathari,  Picards, 
Paterins,  and  Albigenses]  owed  their  origin  to  the  Paulicians." "  Those  who 


120  THE  MIDDLE  AGES.        [251.  §59. 

• 

A  and  the  court  of  inquisition  established,  subject  at  first  to 
the  authority  of  the  bishops,  but  at  a  later  period  almost 
exclusively  under  the  control  of  the  Dominicans. 
251  2.  Political  Constitution.  The  distinguishing  cha- 
racteristic of  this  and  the  following  period  is  the  spirit  of 
political  communism  which  pervades  every  relation  of 
life,  and  manifests  itself  in  the  establishment  of  orders  of 
chivalry,  Hanseatic  leagues  among  merchants,  guilds  and 
companies  of  handicraftsmen,  universities  and  their  nations, 
bands  of  mercenary  soldiers,  unions  of  architects  and 

B  painters,  &c.  Two  of  the  most  important  results  of  this 
spirit  are — 1.  Chivalry,  the  germ  of  which  may  be  found 
in  the  practice  of  the  ancient  Franks  (among  whom  the 
horse-soldier  was  highly  esteemed),  but  for  its  develop- 
ment it  is  indebted  to  the  military  exercises,  at  the  courts 
of  the  German  kings,  and  the  combats  of  the  Christians 

c  with  the  Moors  in  Spain.  Since  the  establishment  of  the 
feudal  system,  it  had  been  the  custom  for  proprietors  of 
the  larger  estates  to  serve  on  horseback  ;  and  this  union 
of  persons,  pledged  to  the  performance  of  the  same  duties, 
soon  assumed  the  form  of  a  distinct  order  of  chivalry,  which 
spread,  by  means  of  the  crusades,  over  the  east  as  well  as 
the  west ;  its  character  being  of  course  modified  by  the 
various  circumstances  of  the  countries  in  which  it  was 

D  established.  The  degrees  of  chivalry  were — (a)  The  page 
(from  seven  years  old  to  fourteen),  who  was  raised  to  the 
rank  of  (b)  Esquire,  and  declared  capable  of  bearing  arms, 
by  the  delivery  of  a  sword.  The  esquire  was  dubbed  (c)  a 
Knight  (generally  in  his  twenty-first  year)  by  the  blow  of  a 
sword  on  his  shoulder.  The  chief  duties  of  knighthood 
were  protection  of  the  Church,  widows,  and  orphans ; 
maintenance  of  personal  honor,  even  at  the  cost  of  life  ; 
and  a  courteous  and  modest  demeanor  towards  ladies 
(galanterie) .  For  the  faithful  performance  of  these  duties, 
the  knight  was  rewarded  with  the  approbation  of  mankind 
and  the  panegyrical  strains  of  minstrels.  The  most  splen- 
did exhibition  of  chivalry  was  the  tournament, — a  develop- 


are  absolutely  free  from  any  taint  of  Manicheeism  are  properly  called  Waldenses  ; 
a  name  perpetually  confounded  in  later  times  with  that  of  Albiffenses,  but  dis- 
tinguishing a  sect  probably  of  separate  origin,  and  at  least  of  different  tenets." 

"  These  pious  and  innocent  sectaries  [the  Waldenses].  of  whom  the  very 

monkish  historians  speak  well,  appear  to  have  nearly  resembled  the  modem  Mo- 
ravians." "  The  Waldenses  were  always  considered  as  much  less  erroneous  In 
their  tenets  than  the  Albigenses  or  Manichaeans."— Hallam,  vol.  iii.  p.  45. 


251.    §  59.]  RELIGION,    ARTS,    ETC.  121 

.Client  of  the  ancient  military  exercises,  which  assumed  a  (251) 
more  systematic  character  towards  the  end  of  the  twelfth  A 
century,  and  soon  became  popular  in  every  country  of 
Europe.  For  the  union  of  chivalry  and  monasticism,  see 
p.  119. — 2.  The  establishment  and  development  of  a  free  221 
and  privileged  Burgher  order  throughout  the  whole  of  what 
was  once  the  Carlovingian  empire,  (a)  especially  in  Upper 
and  Central  Italy,  where,  during  the  disputes  respecting  the 
right  of  investiture,  all  affairs  of  police,  finance,  and  ex- 
ecutive government  in  the  cities,  had  been  administered  b} 
civic  magistrates,  with  the  consules  communis  at  their  head. 
At  a  diet  held  on  the  Roncalian  plain  during  the  second  B 
campaign  of  Frederick  I.  in  Italy,  the  supremacy  of  the 
emperor  was  established,  and  imperial  lieutenants  (podesta) 
appointed  to  execute  his  decrees ;  but  the  misconduct  of 
these  officers  soon  occasioned  their  removal,  and  the  ap- 
pointment of  civic  podesta.  At  a  later  period,  even  the 
handicraftsmen  claimed  a  share  in  the  government,  which 
until  that  time  had  been  entirely  in  the  hands  of  the  patri- 
cians, and  compelled  the  authorities  to  sanction  the  appoint- 
ment of  a  capitano  del  popolo,  who  became  thenceforward 
the  opponent  of  the  podesta.  Whenever  it  was  requisite  c 
that  the  contending  parties  should  act  in  concert,  the 
supreme  political  authority  (signoria)  was  placed  for  a 
definite  period  in  the  hands  of  some  neighboring  prince, 
or  renowned  leader  (condottiere).  All  these  free  cities 
adopted  the  Roman  code,  and  a  system  of  indirect  taxation. 
(Z>)  In  Germany,  especially  in  the  times  of  Frederick  II.  and 
the  interregnum,  the  cities,  partly  by  purchase  and  partly 
by  the  strong  hand,  became  possessed  of  similar  though 
less  extensive  immunities,  such  as  immediate  dependence 
on  the  empire,  self-government,  the  right  of  coining  money, 
imposing  taxes,  and  holding  markets,  with  various  com- 
mercial privileges,  and  free  trade  to  a  certain  extent.  The  D 
conservation  of  these  privileges  was  intrusted  to  a  burgo- 
master, assisted  by  a  college  of  counsellors,  until  the  four- 
teenth century,  when  the  guilds,  or  trades-unions,  seem  to 
have  taken  forcible  possession  if  not  of  all,  at  least  of  the 
most  important  civic  offices,  (c)  In  France,  political 
privileges  were  granted  to  the  cities  by  the  nobility  and 
clergy,  either  for  a  pecuniary  consideration,  or  because 
they  had  sagacity  enough  to  perceive  that  their  own  pros- 
6 


122  THE  MIDDLE  AGES.    [252,  253.  §  59. 

(251)  perity  was  closely  interwoven  with  that  of  their  vassals. 

A  (d)  In  Arragon,the  executive  authority  was  shared  by  royal 
and  civic  functionaries.  In  the  north  and  east  of  Europe, 
towards  the  middle  of  the  thirteenth  century,  cities  were 
founded  after  the  model  of  those  in  the  west,  or  civic 
privileges  granted  to  existing  communities.  It  was  only, 
however,  in  the  maritime  cities  of  Upper  Italy  that  the 
attempt  to  emancipate  themselves  from  the  authority  of 
their  feudal  sovereign  was  entirely  successful.  In  Ger- 
many, especially,  the  imperial  cities  remained  subject  to  the 

B  emperor,  and  the  others  to  the  great  nobles.  Delegates 
from  the  cities  appeared  at  diets  first  at  Barcelona,  then  in 
Italy,  and  at  a  later  period  in  England. 

252  3.  Legislation  and  legal  practice.     The  written 
codes  of  this  period  were  either  abstracts  of  existing  laws  com- 
piled by  command  of  princes,  or  the  works  of  private  indivi- 
duals, which  in  process  of  time  were  recognized  as  public 
documents;  such,  for  example,  as  the  Lombardic  feudal 
code  and  the  Saxon  and  Swabian  mirrors  (Sachsenspiegel 
and  Sch wabenspiegel),  the  former  for  Northern,  and  the  lat- 

c  ter  for  Southern  Germany :  or  they  were  charters  granted  by 
kings  to  their  subjects,  e.  g.  the  Charta  Magna  Libertatum 
of  King  John,  and  the  Charter  of  Andrew  11.  of  Hungary. 
The  compilation  of  civil  codes  was  also  common  during 
this  period.  Towards  its  conclusion  the  judicial  combat 
and  the  ordeal  fell  into  disuse,  but  the  practice  of  torturing 
suspected  persons  became  more  frequent,  and  the  punish- 
ments inflicted  on  criminals  more  cruel  and  sanguinaiy. 

253  4.  During  this  period  the  sciences,  the  study  of  which 
had  hitherto  been  confined   to  the  cloister,  began  to  be 
cultivated  by  laity  as  well  as  clergy,  under  the  auspices  of 
the  spiritual  and  temporal  princes,  whose  object  was  greatly 
promoted   by  the  increased  number  of  schools  and   the 

D  establishment  of  universities.  The  most  ancient  of  these 
foundations  owe  their  origin  to  the  assemblages  of  young 
persons,  who  flocked  to  the  theological  and  philosophical 
schools  of  Paris,  where  Abelard  lectured,  and  to  the 
schools  of  jurisprudence  at  Bologna,  in  which  the  principles 
of  the  Roman  law  were  expounded  by  Irnevius.  The 
pupils  and  teachers  formed  a  privileged  corporation,  or 
universitas,  with  peculiar  jurisdiction.  After  the  model 
of  these  two  universities  (at  which  the  other  sciences  began 


254.    §59.]  RELIGION,    ARTS,    ETC.  123 

gradually  to  be  taught),  establishments  were  formed  during  (253) 
this  period  at  Padua,  Naples,  Thoulouse,  Salamanca,  Per-  A. 
rara,  Oxford,  and  Cambridge.  The  scholastic  mode  of 
treating  theological  subjects,  which  had  been  introduced  by 
Lanfranc  and  Anselm  (f  1143),  was  pursued  by  Abelard 
(whose  dogmas  were  condemned  as  heretical  by  St.  Bernard) 
and  by  his  disciple  Peter  Lombard,  whose  manual  of 
theology  was  used  as  a  text  book  for  more  than  300  years. 
In  the  thirteenth  century,  the  discovery  of  the  metaphysical, 
physical,  and  ethical  works  of  Aristotle  (his  Logic  having 
been  the  only  one  of  his  treatises  hitherto  studied)  laid  the 
foundation  of  philosophical  scholastics,  in  which  Albertus 
(count  of  Bollstadt)  Magnus  (f  1280),  his  disciple,  Thomas 
Aquinas  (\  1274),  and  DunsScotus(f  1308)  especially  dis- 
tinguished themselves.  Next  to  theology  arid  philosophy  the  B 
canon  and  Roman  laws  were  most  zealously  studied.  His- 
tory, in  central  and  western  Europe,  was  written  in  Latin, 
until  the  time  of  Geoffrey  and  Joinville,  two  Frenchmen, 
who  published  the  first  historical  work  in  the  vernacular 
tongue.  Mathematical  science  was  learnt  from  the  Ara- 
bian writers  or  from  Arabic  translations  of  Greek  treatises. 
The  most  celebrated  student  in  this  department,  and  in 
chemistry,  was  Roger  Bacon  (\  1294).  Mechanics  were  c 
brought  to  great  perfection  during  the  erection  of  the  noble 
buildings  of  this  period.  The  use  of  the  mariner's  com- 
pass was  also  discovered.  Byzantine  literature  was  con- 
fined to  historical  works  (Anna  Comnena,  Joh.  Zonaras), 
critical  expositions  of  the  ancient  Greek  writers  (Homer, 
by  Eustathius),  and  treatises  on  jurisprudence  and  theolo- 
gy. Among  the  Arabians,  Averroes  was  distinguished  as 
a  philosophical  writer,  Abulfaradsh  as  a  historian,  and 
Geber  as  a  mathematician. 

5.  Art.  254 

(a)  The  poetry  of  this  period  was  deeply  imbued  with  D 
the  romantic  spirit  of  the  crusades  and  of  chivalry.  In 
Germany  epic  and  lyric  poetry  attained  their  highest  degree 
of  excellence  under  the  patronage  of  the  Hohenstaufen. 
The  productions  of  the  former  were  of  three  sorts:  1. 
Original  German  compositions  (the  Nibelungen  Noth,  and 
other  poerns);  2.  Imitations  of  northern  French  works 
(legends  of  Charlemagne,  Arthur,  and  the  Knights  of  the 
Round  Table)  or  of  Provencal  romances ;  3.  Poetical  ver- 


124  THE    MIDDLE    AGES.         [255,256.    §59. 

(254)  sions  of  ancient  myths.  The  most  distinguished  professors 
A  of  lyric  poetry  were  the  Minne-singers;  Henry  von  Val- 
deck,  Hartmann  von  der  Aue,  Wolfram  von  Eschenbach, 
Walter  von  der  Vogelweide,  &c.  "  The  war  on  the  Wart- 
burg"  is  a  curious  specimen  of  the  poetical  contests  of 
those  days.  In  the  south  of  France,  Provencal  minstrelsy 
was  cultivated  successfully  during  an  entire  century  by  the 
Troubadours,  who  recited  their  compositions  at  the  courts 
of  the  counts  of  Thoulouse,  Provence,  &c.,  whilst  in  the 
north,  epic  (principally  the  chivalrous  romance,  the  contes 
and  fabliaux),  and  at  a  later  period  didactic,  allegoric,  and 
lyric  poetry  flourished  in  the  hands  of  the  Trouveres. 
The  minstrelsy  of  the  Troubadours  travelled  from  Provence 
B  to  the  east  of  Spain  and  Lombardy.  In  Castille  the  ex- 
ploits of  the  Cid  furnished  a  fruitful  subject  for  romance. 
In  the  north,  Scandinavian  poetry  was  cultivated  with  con- 
siderable  success,  especially  in  Iceland,  where  the  mythic 
songs  of  the  ancient  Scalds  and  innumerable  Sagas  were 
brought  together  in  the  older  and  more  recent  Edda. 

255  (b)  The  German  or  new  Gothic  style  of  architecture, 
with  its  characteristic  features,  the  pointed  arch,  slender 
column,  and  elegant  tracery,  was  imported  from  England 
by    brotherhoods    or    unions   of  architects    (freemasons' 
lodges),  and  attained  its  highest  perfection  in  the  thirteenth 

c  century.  The  most  magnificent  specimens  of  this  style 
of  architecture,  such  as  the  minsters  of  Strasburg  (begun 
in  1018)  and  Friburg,  the  church  of  St.  Stephen  at  Vienna 
(1140),  the  domes  of  Magdeburg  and  Cologne  (1248);  in 
France,  the  cathedrals  of  Rouen,  Rheims,  and  Amiens; 
in  England,  St.  Peter's  at  York,  and  Westminster  Abbey 
in  London ;  and  in  Spain,  the  cathedrals  of  Burgos  and 
Toledo,  were  at  least  commenced  in  this  century.  Secular 
buildings  of  every  description,  such  as  bridges,  palaces, 
council-houses,  monasteries,  &c.,  were  also  erected  at  an 
enormous  cost  of  labor  and  money. 

256  (c)  Of  the  other  arts,  those  were  especially  cultivated 
D  which  contributed  to  the  embellishment  of  churches,  cast- 
ing in  bronze,  for  instance,  and  painting  on  glass,  which  was 
invented  in  the  eleventh  century,  and  had  now  attained 
great  perfection.    Sculpture  and  painting  were  not  elevated 
to  the  rank  of  independent  arts  until  the  thirteenth  century 
(the  former  by  Nicolo  Pisano.  f  1270,  and  the  latter  by 


257.    §59.]  RELIGION,    ARTS,    ETC.  125 

Cimabue,  1249 — 1300).     Companies  or  unions  of  painters  A 
were  also  formed  in  the  thirteenth  century. 

6.  Commerc  e. — (a)  Maritime  trade,  (aa)  inthe  Mediter-  257 
ranean,  was  carried  on,  for  the  most  part,  by  Genoa,  Venice, 
and  Pisa,  and  also  by  Marseilles  and  Barcelona,  with  the 
sea-ports  of  the  Holy  Land  and  Syria,  the  northern  coast  of 
Africa,  Egypt,  Cyprus,  Asia  Minor,  and  the  Byzantine 
empire.  For  the  trade  of  the  Venetians  and  Genoese  out 
of  Constantinople,  see  page  95.  (bb)  The  commerce  of 
the  north  of  Europe  flourished  principally  in  («)  northern 
Germany,  including  Lubeck,  Bremen,  and  Hamburg ;  (/?) 
in  the  Netherlands,  especially  in  the  cities  of  Ypres,  B 
Bruges,  and  Ghent,  where  Germans,  Frenchmen,  and 
Italians,  were  accustomed  to  meet  for  the  purposes  of  trade  ; 
(y)  in  the  island  of  Gothland,  with  its  capital  Wisby,  the 
general  emporium  of  the  commerce  carried  on  by  German, 
Norman,  and  Sclavonian  adventurers  in  the  Baltic,  arid 
thence  overland  by  Novgorod  into  the  interior  of  Russia. 
(b)  The  chief  stations  of  the  inland  trade  were  Ratisbon, 
Vienna,  Troyes,  Lyons,  Beaucaire,  Augsburg,  Nurnberg, 
Frankfort  on  the  Main,  and  Cologne.  The  natural  result 
of  a  commercial  league  between  the  cities  of  Southern 
Germany  (Ratisbon,  Zurich,  Augsburg,  and  Strasburg),  and 
the  Italian  towns  of  Genoa  and  Venice,  was  an  active  in- 
terchange of  merchandise  through  the  passes  of  the  Alps. 
Even  among  merchants,  especially  those  of  Germany,  the  c 
spirit  of  the  age  manifested  itself  in  the  formation — 1.  Of 
several  Kansas,  or  unions  of  commercial  men,  in  one  or 
more  cities,  for  the  promotion  and  protection  of  their  trade 
with  foreign  countries,  in  which  they  obtained  various  pri- 
vileges, and  were  permitted  to  erect  warehouses  and  halls 
for  the  transaction  of  their  business  (e.  g.  the  merchants  of 
Cologne  and  other  cities  in  the  Netherlands  enjoyed  a 
monopoly  of  the  trade  with  England,  and  had  a  Guildhall  in 
London).  2.  Provincial  unions,  especially  of  cities  in  the  D 
south  of  France  and  north  of  Germany,  for  the  conservation 
of  peace  within  the  district  over  which  their  commerce  ex- 
tended. Out  of  these  two  elements  was  formed  in  the  fol- 
lowing century  the  great  German  Hansa.  During  this  period 
the  enactments  respecting  maritime  enterprise  and  com- 
merce consisted,  for  the  most  part,  of  letters-patent  granting 
privileges  to  particular  unions  or  places.  The  Church 


126  THE    MIDDLE    AGES.        [258,259.    §60. 

(257)  raised  her  voice  in  vain  against  commercial  intercourse 
A  with  the  Mahometans,  but  was  more  successful  in   her 

efforts  to  suppress  the  slave-trade. 

258  7.  Manufactures,  &c.  Agriculture  flourished  during 
this  period  under  the  protection  of  the  Treuga  Dei,  and 
derived  considerable  advantage  from  the  establishment  of 
a  free  peasant  order  during  the  crusades,  and  the  settlement 
of  Netherlanders  in  north-eastern  Germany.  The  cultiva- 
tion of  the  vine  was  eminently  successful  in  the  south  of 
France  and  Christian  Spain,  and  mining  operations  in 
B  Bohemia  and  Moorish  Spain.  The  importance  of  manual 
crafts  was  greatly  augmented  by  the  establishment  of 
guilds,  or  companies,  the  freemen  of  which  dwelt  in  the 
same  street  or  quarter  of  the  city,  and  exposed  their  wares 
for  sale  on  rows  of  benches  or  in  halls.  The  manufac- 
ture of  cloth  flourished  chiefly  in  Flanders,  Upper  Italy, 
Germany,  and  the  south  of  France ;  that  of  silk,  in 
Italy  ;  of  leather,  in  Moorish  Spain  ;  of  paper,  in  Italy 
and  Spain.  The  best  articles  of  hardware,  especially 
swords,  were  produced  in  the  Netherlands,  Upper  Italy, 
c  and  Moorish  Spain.  The  trade  in  glass  was  almost 
monopolized  by  Venice.  Commercial  prosperity  was 
greatly  promoted  by  the  establishment  of  annual  fairs,  the 
erection  of  warehouses  and  depdts,  and  the  invention  by 
the  Lombards  of  bills  of  exchange. 


FOURTH  PERIOD. 

From  the  termination  of  the  Crusades  to  the  discovery  of  America, 
1273—1492. 

A.  The  West. 
§  60.   Germany  and  Switzerland. 

Geographical  view  of  Germany  between  the 
years  1300  and  1500. 

259      1.  The  seven  electorates,     a.  Three  archbishoprics  : — 

oviz.    Mainz,    Treves,  and  Cologne.       b.  Four   temporal 

principalities:  viz.  1,  the  Palatinate  (cap.   Heidelberg); 

2,    Saxony  (Wittenberg) ;     3,  Bohemia  (Prague),    with 

Moravia  and  Silesia  ;    4,  Brandenburg  (Brandenburg). 


260.    §60.]  GERMANY    AND    SWITZERLAND.  127 

2.  The  Duchies,     a.  In  the  west: — 1.  Lorraine  (cap.  (259) 
Nancy) ;    2,  Lutzelburg   or   Luxemburg  (Luxemburg),  A 
with  the  county  of  Saarbriicken  ;   3,  Limburg(Limburg), 
Brabant  (Brussels) ;    4,  Cleves  (Cleves),  with  the  counties 

of  Mark,  Juliers,  and  Berg  (Dusseldorf)  ;  5,  Guelderland. 

1.  In  the  south  : — 1,  Wurtemberg  (Stuttgart);   2,  Bavaria 
(Munich) ;  3,  Austria  (Vienna),  with  Styria  and  Carniola ; 
4,  Carinthia.     c.  In  the  north  : — 1,  Brunswick-Liineburg; 

2,  Holstein  ;  3,  Lauenburg  ;    4,  Mecklenburg  (Schwerin 
and  Stargard) ;    5,  Pomerania. 

3.  The  Principalities — Nassau  and  Anhalt.  B 

4.  The  Margravate  of  Baden. 

5.  The  Landgravates — Alsace,  Hesse,  and  Thuringia. 

6.  The  Burgravate  of  Niirnberg. 

7.  Several    Counties    (Holland,  Hennegan,    Flanders, 
Namur,  &c.) 

8.  The  Archbishoprics  (exclusive  of  the  three  spiritual 
electorates),  Salzburg,  Magdeburg,  and  Bremen. 

9.  Several  (21)  Bishoprics. 

10.  The  (95)  free  imperial  cities.     Of  these  the  mostc 
considerable  were  : — a.  In  Franconia — Spires,   Worms, 
Mainz,  Frankfort,  Wetzlar,  Erfurt,    b.  In  Bavaria,  Niirn- 
berg and  Ratisbon.     c.  In  Swabia — Ulm  and  Augsburg. 
d.  In  Alsace — Strasburg.     e.  In  Lorraine — Metz,  Treves, 
Cologne,   Aachen    or    Aix-la-Chapelle,    Diiren.      /.    In 
Saxony  —  Dortmund,    Magdeburg,    Bremen,    Hamburg, 
Liibeck. 

The  kingdom  of  Burgundy,  after  its  dismemberment, 
was  divided  between  France  and  the  Dukes  of  Burgundy. 

A.  Kings  of  different  houses,  1273—1347. 

1.  Rudolf  of  Habsburg  (1273— 1291).  As  early  as  260 
the  beginning  of  the  thirteenth  century,  the  right  of  election  D 
to  the  throne  of  Germany  had  been  transferred  from  the 
ancient  dukes,  or  popular  leaders,  to  the  great  officers  of 
the  imperial  household:   viz.  1,  the  Archbishop  of  Mainz, 
as  Arch-Chancellor  of  the  German  empire  ;    2,  the  Arch- 
bishop of  Treves,  as  Arch-Chancellor  of  the  kingdom  of 
Aries  ;  3,  the  Archbishop  of  Cologne,  as  Arch-Chancellor 
of  the  kingdom  of  Lombardy  ;  4,  the  Count  Palatine  of  the 
Rhine,  as  Grand-Sewer  ;  5,  the  Duke  of  Saxony,  RS  Grand 


128  THE    MIDDLE    AGES.         [261,262.    §60. 

(260)  Marshal ;  6,  the  King  of  Bohemia,  as  Grand  Butler ;  7,  the 
A  Margrave  of  Brandenburg,  as  Grand  Chamberlain.  After 
the  death  of  Richard  of  Cornwall,  the  electors,  on  the 
motion  of  the  Archbishop  of  Mainz,  chose  Rudolf  of 
Habsburg,  a  nobleman  of  very  moderate  political  in- 
fluence. '  The  ambassador  of  Bohemia  having  been 
excluded  from  the  hall  of  election,  his  master  Ottocar 
refused  to  recognize  Rudolf;  and  being  placed  under  the 
ban  of  the  empire,  was  compelled  to  relinquish  his  claims 
to  the  sovereignty  of  Austria,  Styria,  Carinthia,  and  Car- 
niola ;  and  in  a  second  war  was  defeated  and  slain  on  the 
B  Marchfield  (1278).  Rudolf  granted  Carinthia  to  Count 
Mainhard  of  the  Tyrol,  and  the  three  remaining  prin- 
cipalities to  his  sons  Albert  and  Rudolf.  Ottocar's  son, 
Wenceslaus,  was  allowed  to  retain  Bohemia  and  Moravia. 
From  this  period  the  grand  object  of  the  German  kings 
seems  to  have  been  to  establish  hereditary  power  in  their 
families. 

261  2.  Adolphus  of   Nassau  (1291 — 1298),  a  cousin 
c  of  the  Archbishop  of  Mainz,  was  placed  on  the  throne 

through  the  influence  of  his  kinsman,  and  in  order  to 
strengthen  the  interests  of  his  family,  purchased  Thuringia 
and  Meissen  from  the  Landgrave,  Albert  the  Degenerate, 
whose  sons,  Frederick  with  the  Bitten  Cheek,  and  Diezman, 
refused  to  recognize  the  compact.  In  the  war  which 
Ensued,  such  fearful  barbarities  were  perpetrated  by 
Adolphus,  that  three  of  the  electors,  who  were  already 
disgusted  at  his  breach  of  faith,  declared  the  throne  void, 
and  chose  Albert  of  Austria,  a  son  of  Rudolf  I.  Adol- 
phus was  killed  in  the  battle  of  Gelheim,  near  Worms. 

262  3.  The   choice   of  the  electors,  which  had   fallen  on 
D  Albert  I.  of  Austria  (1298 — 1308),  during  the  lifetime 

of  Adolphus,  was  now  confirmed  by  a  second  election.  His 
plans  for  the  aggrandizement  of  his  house,  and  for  render- 
ing the  imperial  dignity  hereditary  in  the  family  of  Habs- 
burg, were  unsuccessful ;  nor  was  he  more  fortunate  in 
the  revival  of  his  claims  to  the  sovereignty  of  Thuringia. 
The  extinction  of  the  ancient  royal  family  in  Bohemia 
afforded  him  an  opportunity  of  placing  his  son  Albert  on 
the  throne  of  that  country  ;  but  this  connection  was  soon 
dissolved  by  the  death  of  the  new  sovereign,  and  the  elec- 
tion of  the  Duke  of  Carinthia  by  the  Bohemian  people. 


263,264.  §60.]     GERMANY  AND  SWITZERLAND.  129 

The  three  forest  cantons  of  Switzerland,  Schwyz,  Uri,  (262) 
and  Unterwalden  (which  had  voluntarily  placed  them-  A 
selves  under  the  protection  of  the  empire),  having  resisted 
an  attempt  of  Albert  to  render  them  hereditary  possessions 
of  his  own  family,  were  grievously  oppressed  by  the  impe- 
rial governors  Herman  Gessler  of  Bruneck  and  Be  rin- 
ger of  Landenberg  (?)  The  conspiracy  of  Werner 
S  t  a  u  f f  a  c  h  e  r  of  Schwyz,  Walter  F  ii  r  s  t  (of  Attinghausen 
in  Uri),  and  Arnold  Mel  ch  thai  of  Unterwalden,  with 
thirty  confederates,  including  the  renowned  WTilliam  Tell, 
laid  the  foundation  of  the  Swiss  Confederacy  (1307). 
Gessler  was  shot  dead  by  an  arrow  from  the  bow  of  Tell,  B 
and  Landenberg  defeated  by  a  stratagem,  and  expelled  the 
country.  In  the  midst  of  his  preparations  for  a  Swiss  cam- 
paign, Albert  was  assassinated  in  Aargau  by  his  nephew 
Duke  John  (Parricida),  from  whom  he  had  unjustly  with- 
held his  portion  of  the  Habsburg  estates. 

4.  Henry  Vll.,  of  Luxemburg  (1308—1313),  a  263 
brave  and  experienced  warrior,  was  chosen  by  the  electors 

on  the  motion  of  the  Archbishop  of  Mainz.  The  attempts 
of  Henry  to  extend  the  influence  of  his  family  were  more 
successful  than  those  of  his  predecessors,  Bohemia  having 
been  made  a  fief  of  his  house  by  the  marriage  of  his  son 
John  with  the  heiress  of  that  kingdom.  A  succession  of  c 
victories  enabled  him  to  enter  Rome  in  triumph,  and  place 
on  his  head  the  imperial  crown,  thus  restoring  the  empire, 
which  had  been  in  a  state  of  abeyance  for  sixty-two  years. 
He  was  on  the  point  of  attacking  the  King  of  Naples,  the 
head  of  the  Guelphic  party,  when  death  put  an  end  to  his 
ambitious  projects. 

5.  Louis  'IV.,  the  Bavarian  (1313—1347),  and  Fre-  264 
derickofAustria  (1313 — 1330),  the  former  chosen  by  D 
the  Luxemburg,  the  latter  by  the  Habsburg  party.     The 
house  of  Habsburg  engaged  in  hostilities  with  the  Swiss, 
who  defeated  Frederick's  brother,  Duke  Leopold  of  Austria, 

at  Morgarten  (1315),  and  with  the  rival  king  at  Miihl- 
dorf  (1322),  where  Frederick  was  defeated  and  taken 
prisoner  (by  Schweppermann).  A  reconciliation  was  after- 
wards effected  (at  Trausnitz)  between  the  two  kings,  who 
shared  the  throne  until  the  death  of  Frederick,  in  1330. 
After  the  battle  of  Miihldorf,  Louis  had  sent  an  army  into 
Italy  to  assist  the  Ghibellines  against  the  Guelphs,  the 


130  THE  MIDDLE  AGES.        [265.  §60, 

(264)  devoted  adherents  of  the  pope,  and  was  in  consequence 

A  excommunicated  by  John  XXII.  (at  Avignon),  his  king- 
dom placed  under  an  interdict,  and  the  German  crown 
offered  to  France.  In  defiance  of  this  sentence,  Louis 
marched  to  Milan,  where  he  was  crowned  King  of  Lom- 
bardy,  and  then  proceeding  to  Rome,  received  the  imperial 
crown  from  the  hands  of  the  capitano  del  popolo,  and 
placed  a  rival  pope,  Nicholas  V.,  on  the  papal  throne. 

B  Finding  himself,  however,  too  feeble  to  maintain  his  autho- 
rity in  Italy,  he  returned,  after  the  death  of  Frederick,  to 
Germany,  where  the  electors,  after  endeavoring  without 
success  to  effect  a  reconciliation  between  the  pope  and 
emperor,  assembled  the  first  electoral  diet  at  Rense 
(from  which  the  King  of  Bohemia  alone  was  absent),  and 
declared  the  empire  independent  of  the  popedom,  swearing 
at  the  same  time  to  maintain  the  privileges  of  the  emperor 
and  their  own  rights.  Louis  increased  the  possessions  of 
his  family  by — 1,  granting  the  March  of  Brandenburg  as  a 
fief  to  his  son  Lewis,  after  the  extinction  of  the  Ascanian 
family ;  2,  annexing  the  Tyrol  to  his  hereditary  dominions, 
by  the  marriage  of  his  son  Lewis  with  the  Countess  Margaret 

c  Maultasch.  In  this  instance  he  usurped  the  authority  of 
the  pope,  by  himself  divorcing  Margaret  from  her  husband 
(John  Henry  of  Bohemia),  and  granting  a  dispensation  for 
marriage  within  the  third  degree  of  consanguinity ;  3,  by 
seizing  on  the  counties  of  Holland,  Zealand,  Friesland, 
and  Hennegau,  as  lapsed  fiefs  of  the  empire,  and  conferring 
them  on  his  wife  (a  sister  of  the  Count  of  Holland,  who 
had  died  without  issue).  The  unconstitutional  annexation  of 
the  Tyrol  so  disgusted  the  nobles  of  Germany,  that  the  pope 
found  little  difficulty  in  persuading  five  of  the  electors  to 
declare  the  throne  vacant,  and  elect  (in  1346)  Charles,  son 

D  of  John,  king  of  Bohemia.  The  Bohemian  party,  on  the 
death  of  Louis  in  the  following  year,  elected  Count  Gttn- 
ther  of  Schwartzburg,  who  contested  the  possession  of  the 
crown  until  his  decease  in  1349,  when  Charles  was  univer- 
sally recognized  as  King  of  Germany. 


B.    Kings  of  the  house  of  Luxemburg. 
'95      1.  Charles  IV.  (1347—1378).     After  receiving  the 


265.    §60.]  GERMANY    AND    SWITZERLAND.  131 

imperial  crown,  through  his  ambassador,  from  the  hands  of  (265) 
the  pope,  Charles  devoted  his  chief  attention  to  the  re-  A 
moval  of  the  evils  necessarily  attendant  on  the  ill-defined 
form  of  election  to  the  imperial  throne  which  had  hitherto 
been  adopted.  For  the  promotion  of  this  object,  he  pub- 
lished (at  the  diets  of  Nurnberg  and  Metz,  in  1356)  a 
document  termed  the  golden  bull,  in  which  the  mode 
of  election,  the  rights  of  the  electors,  and  the  terms  on 
\vhich  peace  was  thenceforth  to  be  maintained  in  Germany, 
were  definitively  settled.  By  this  constitution  it  was  pro-  B 
vided,  that  within  three  months  of  the  death  of  an  emperor, 
the  Archbishop  of  Mainz,  as  arch-chancellor,  should  sum- 
mon the  seven  electors  to  hold  a  new  election,  the  result  of 
which  should  be  decided  by  a  plurality  of  votes :  that  the 
coronation  of  the  sovereign  should  take  place  at  Aachen; 
the  electors  should  hold  the  first  rank  among  the  dignita- 
ries of  the  empire,  and  their  territories  be  indivisible.  All 
the  other  efforts  of  Charles  were  directed  to  the  aggran- 
dizement of  his  hereditary  kingdom  of  Bohemia,  to  which, 
under  various  pretences,  he  contrived  to  annex  the  March 
of  Brandenburg,  Silesia,  the  two  Lusaces,  and  a  portion  of 
the  Upper  Palatinate.  In  pursuance  of  his  plan,  he  also  c 
founded  the  first  German  university  at  Prague  (1348), 
which  soon  numbered  from  5000  to  7000  students,  in- 
creased the  number  of  convents  and  churches,  promoted 
commerce,  agriculture,  and  mining,  effected  an  improve- 
ment in  the  framing  and  administration  of  the  laws,  and  de- 
molished the  robber-castles.  The  funds  necessary  for  these 
improvements  were  obtained  by  granting  extensive  privi- 
leges to  the  imperial  cities,  in  return  for  large  sums  of 
money,  or  equivalent  advantages.  The  most  important  of 
these  privileges  were,  the  right  of  self-taxation,  forming 
alliances,  and  making  war  and  peace;  exemption  from  all 
external  jurisdiction  and  inviolability.  During  his  reign,  D 
the  influence  of  the  aristocratic  order  was  augmented  by 
the  addition  of  five  new  dukedoms,  viz.  Mecklenburg, 
Luxemburg,  Bar,  Liege  or  Luttich,  and  Berg;  and  the 
number  of  confederacies  of  towns  increased  to  five,  viz.  the 
German  Hansa,  now  at  the  summit  of  its  power,  the  con- 
federacy of  the  seven  Frieslandic  maritime  districts,  the 
Rhenish,  Swiss,  and  Swabian  confederacies;  besides 
those  of  the  nobility  (the  order  of  St.  George,  in  Swabia; 


132  THE   MIDDLE   AGES.        [266,267.    §60. 

A  the  associations  of  the  Lion  and  Falcon,  &c.)  Charles 
was  succeeded  by  his  eldest  son,  the  Roman  king. 

266  2.  Wenzel,  or  Wenceslaus  (1378— 1400),  who  re- 
tained  Bohemia  and  Silesia,  to  which  the  dukedom  of  Lux- 
emburg was  added  after  the  death  (without  issue)  of  his  uncle 
Wenzel.    His  brother  Sigismund  received  Brandenburg  as 
his  portion.     The  cities  and  knights  having  renewed  and 
strengthened  their  confederacies,  and  a  union  of  the  three 
estates,  princes,  knights,  and  cities,  having  been  formed  in 
Swabia,  under  the  auspices  of  Count  Eberhard  of  Wiirtem- 
berg,  Wenceslaus,  in  order  to  maintain  his  influence,  esta- 
blished a  general  union  in  southern  Germany,  and  placed 

B  himself  at  its  head.  A  plan  was  already  in  progress  for 
establishing  a  confederacy  of  the  entire  empire,  when  the  dis- 
putes between  the  nobles  and  cities  occasioned  a  war,  which 
terminated  in  the  defeat  of  the  cities  (near  Doffingen  and 
Worms  in  1388).  Wenzel  now  took  part  with  the  victorious 
nobles,  dissolved  the  confederacies  of  the  cities,  and  pro- 
claimed a' general  peace.  About  the  same  time  the  Swiss 
confederation  (which  had  been  recently  strengthened  by  the 
accession  of  Lucerne,  Zurich,  Glarus,  Zug,  and  Bern) 
defeated  their  oppressor  Leopold  of  Austria,  near  Sem- 
pach  (1386),  chiefly  through  the  patriotic  self-sacrifice  of 

c  Arnold  of  Winkelriecf.  A  second  victory,  obtained 
in  1388  over  the  duke's  sons  at  Nafels,  secured  to  the 
Swiss  the  undisturbed  possession  of  their  conquests.  The 
capricious  tyranny  exercised  by  Wenceslaus  in  Bohemia, 
where  he  constantly  resided,  and  his  utter  indifference  to 
the  interests  of  the  empire,  rendered  him  an  object  of 
universal  contempt.  He  was  at  lengff  imprisoned  by  his 
brother  Sigismund,  and  set  aside  by  the  three  spiritual 
electors,  who  chose  the  Count  Palatine  Rupert  as  his 
successor  (1400);  but  the  recognition  of  this  prince  was 
by  no  means  universal. 

267  3.  Wenzel  and  Rupert  (1400 — 1410).    An  attempt 
D  to  force  his  way  through  Italy  to  Rome  ended  in  defeat, 

and  lost  Rupert  the  confidence  of  the  nation.  On  his 
return  to  Germany  he  endeavored  to  restore  order  by 
measures  of  extreme  severity,  which  were  vehemently 
opposed  by  a  confederacy  of  nobles  and  cities.  After  his 
death  a  double  return  was  made  by  the  electors,  one  party 
choosing  WenzePs  brother  Sigismund,  Margrave  of  Bran. 


268.    §60.]  GERMANY    AND    SWITZERLAND-  133 

denburg,  and  by  marriage  King  of  Hungary  ;  the  other  (267) 
giving  their  votes  to  his  cousin  Jobst  (Jodacus),  Margrave  A 
of  Moravia.     Germany  had  now  three  kings ;   but  Jodacus 
dying  a  few  months  after  his  election,  Sigismund  remained 
undisputed  occupant  of  the  throne. 

4  Sigismund,  universally  recognized  from  1410  to  268 
1437.  The  great  object  of  his  reign  was  the  extermina- 
tion of  schism.  For  nearly  forty  of  the  seventy  years 
during  which  the  popes  had  been  resident  at  Avignon,  it 
had  been  the  practice  of  the  Roman  and  French  colleges  of 
cardinals  to  elect  each,  its  own  pope.  A  council  held  at  B 
Pisa  in  1409,  instead  of  suppressing,  increased  this  irregu- 
larity, by  deposing  both  Gregory  XII.  and  Benedict  XIII., 
and  recognizing  Alexander  V.,  and  after  his  death 
John  XXIII.  as  sovereign  pontiff;  but  the  previously 
elected  popes  refusing  to  resign,  there  were  now  three  rival 
claimants  to  the  papal  throne.  For  the  removal  of  these  c 
irregularities,  a  general  council  was  summoned  by  the 
emperor  (and  pope  ?)  to  meet  at  Constance  in  1414.  The 
council  was  divided,  for  the  convenience  of  voting,  into 
four  nations — the  Italian,  French,  German,  and  English,  to 
which  were  afterwards  added  five  votes  of  the  Spaniards. 
Its  three  principal  objects  were  (1)  The  entire  suppression 
of  schism.  This  was  attained  by  the  removal  of  the  three 
rival  popes.  Benedict  XIII.  and  John  XXIIL,  who  had 
fled  from  Constance,  were  deposed  ;  Gregory  XII.  abdi- 
cated voluntarily.  A  new  pope,  Martin  V.,  was  then 
elected.  2.  The  extirpation  of  heresy.  The  writings  of  D 
the  Oxford  theologian,  John  Wickliffe,  who  had  attacked 
not  only  the  system  of  monachism  and  the  supremacy  of 
the  pope,  but  the  doctrine  of  transubstantiation  and  other 
dogmas  of  the  Church,  had  been  brought  to  Prague  by  a 
Bohemian  nobleman,  Hieronymus,  or  Jerome,  Faulfisch 
(commonly  called  Jerome  of  Prague),  who  had  studied  at 
Oxford.  The  Bohemian  theologians,  who  were  for  the 
most  part  realists,  in  opposition  to  the  German  nominalists,1 
eagerly  embraced  doctrines  which  accorded  so  well  with 


['  The  realists  maintained  that  universal  or  general  ideas  of  things 
were  objective^,  e.  independent  of  the  human  understanding ;  the  nomi- 
nalists, that  they  were  subjective,  i.  c.  existent  only  in  the  mind. — Note 
by  the  Translator. 


134  THE  MIDDLE  AGES.        [268.  §  60. 

(268)  their  own    system.     Among  their  professors  was  John 

A  Huss,  who  wrote  against  indulgences,  notwithstanding  the 
repeated  prohibitions  of  the  Archbishop  of  Prague  and  the 
pope.  Huss  appeared  before  the  council,  and  in  direct 
violation  of  a  safe  conduct  granted  to  him  by  Sigismund, 
was  condemned  as  a  heretic,  and  delivered  up  to  the  em- 
peror, who  commanded  him  to  be  burnt,  and  charged  the 
elector  palatine  with  the  execution  of  the  sentence.  His 
friend,  Jerome  of  Prague,  at  first  recanted,  but  subsequently 
withdrew  his  recantation,  and  suffered  the  same  punish- 

B  ment.  (3)  A  thorough  reform  of  the  Church.  This  plan 
almost  entirely  miscarried  through  the  dissensions  of  the 
different  nations ;  a  few  only  of  the  more  pressing  demands 
being  met  by  concordats  with  each  nation  separately. 
The  Hussite  war  (1420—1436).  The  disciples  of 
Huss  (who  had  also  adopted  the  opinion  of  Professor 
Jacob  of  Meiss,  that  the  Holy  Communion  ought  to  be 
administered  in  both  kinds  to  the  laity)  chose  Huss's  liege 
lord,  Nicholas  of  Hussinecz,  to  be  their  leader,  and  de- 
manded of  Wenceslaus  permission  to  celebrate  their  service 

c  in  all  the  churches.  This  being  refused,  they  assembled 
on  a  mountain,  to  which  they  gave  the  name  of  Tabor, 
placed  themselves  under  the  command  of  a  brave  knight 
named  John  Ziska,  and  stormed  the  council-house  of 
Prague.  In  the  midst  of  these  disorders,  Wenceslaus  died 
of  apoplexy,  and  was  succeeded  in  his  hereditary  domi- 
nions by  his  brother  Sigismund.  The  opposition  of  the 
Hussites  to  their  new  sovereign  was  even  more  violent 
than  it  had  been  to  his  predecessor,  because  it  was  to  him 
that  they  attributed  the  murder  of  their  master,  Huss.  The 

D  pope  commanded  the  preaching  of  a  crusade  against  them  ; 
but  the  Hussites  (although  divided  after  Huss's  death  into 
four  parties,  viz.,  the  Taborites,  Orphans,  Horebites,  and 
Pragueites)  maintained  their  position  in  the  mountains, 
until  they  had  extorted  from  the  council  of  Basle  permis- 
sion to  receive  the  Holy  Communion  in  both  kinds,  it  being 
at  the  same  time  distinctly  taught  that  its  reception  under 
one  form  was  equally  efficacious.  The  embarrassments  in 
which  Sigismund  was  involved,  compelled  him  not  only  to 
pledge  and  alienate  many  of  the  privileges  and  possessions 
of  the  empire,  but  even  to  sell  his  own  hereditary  margra- 


269,  270.  §  60.]     GERMANY  AND  SWITZERLAND.  135 

vate  of  Brandenburg,  with  its  electoral  dignity,  to  the  Bur-  (268) 
grave  Frederick  of  Nurnburg,  for  400,000  ducats  (in  the  A 
year  1415). 

C.  Kings  of  the  house  of  Austria  (from  1438). 

1..  Sigismund  was  succeeded  on  the  German  throne,  as  269 
well   as   in  Bohemia   and   Hungary,   by   his    son-in-law, 
Albert  of   Austria   (1438,    1439),    who   revived  the 
question  of  the   division  of  Germany  into  circles,  which 
was  again  brought  forward  by  his  cousin  and  successor, 

2.  Frederick  III.  (1440 — 1493),  who  undertook  the  270 
guardianship  of  Ladislaus,  the  infant  son  of  Albert  II.  B 
But  the  want  of  unanimity  among  the  nobles  rendered  such 
a  measure  impracticable,  and  also  prevented,  at  a  sub- 
sequent period,  the  accomplishment  of  a  plan  for  the  esta- 
blishment of  an  imperial  chamber  of  justice.  Proclamations, 
it  is  true,  were  issued  from  time  to  time,  strictly  enjoining 
peace  throughout  the  empire  ;  but  the  feuds  of  her  nobles 
still  continued  to  exhaust  the  energies  of  Germany.  In  c 
conj  unction  with  Zurich  (which  had  quarrelled  with  Sch wyz 
respecting  the  county  of  Toggenburg),  Frederick  at  the 
head  of  an  army  of  French  mercenaries,  the  Armagnacs, 
entered  Switzerland,  in  the  hope  of  recovering  the  Austrian 
provinces  which  had  been  wrested  from  Leopold,  but  was 
compelled,  after  sustaining  two  defeats,  to  confirm  the  con- 
federates in  the  possession  of  the  conquered  territory.  The 
council  of  Basle,  which  had  attempted  to  reduce  the  power 
and  revenues  of  the  papal  see,  was  vehemently  resisted  by 
Pope  Eugenius  IV.,  who  summoned  another  council  to 
meet  at  Ferrara.  In  consequence  of  this  proceeding,  the  D 
council  of  Basle  elected  a  rival  pope  (Felix  V.) ;  but  the 
conclusion  of  the  concordat  of  Aschaffenburg,  or  Vienna, 
by  Frederick  II.  (through  his  private  secretary  JSneas 
Sylvius  Piccolomini,  afterwards  Pius  II.)  with  Pope 
Nicholas  V.,  the  successor  of  Eugenius  IV.,  restored  to 
the  pope  most  of  the  rights  of  which  he  had  been  deprived 
by  the  council,  which  soon  afterwards  dissolved  itself,  and 
also  persuaded  itscreature,  Felix  V.,  to  abdicate.  A  cru- 
sade against  the  Turks,  who  had  taken  Constantinople,  and 
now  threatened  the  western  empire,  was  in  vain  proclaimed 
v  the  pope  and  emperor.  Frederick,  the  last  emperor 


p 

136  THE  MIDDLE  AGES.        [271.  ^Vj-t. 

(270)  who  received  the  imperial  crown  at  Rome,  increased  his 
A  hereditary  possessions  by  (1)  sharing  with  his  brother 
Albert  the  dukedom  of  Austria,  vacant  by  the  death  of  the 
young  Ladislaus  (son  of  Albert  II.).  After  his  brother's 
death,  Frederick  became  sole  duke  of  Austria  ;  but  the 
Bohemians  and  Hungarians  elected  two  native  kings,  the 
former  George  Podiebrad,  and  the  latter  Matthias  Cor- 
vinus,  both  of  whom  successfully  resisted  the  attempts  of 
the  emperor  to  reduce  them  to  submission.  In  the  year 
1485,  Corvinus  took  possession  of  Austria,  which  he 
B  retained  until  his  death  (in  1490).  2.  But  the  most  im- 
portant acquisition  of  territory  was  that  of  the  Netherlands 
and  Blirgundy,  by  the  marriage  of  his  son  Maximilian  with 
Mary,  daughter  of  Charles  the  Bold,  duke  of  Burgundy 
(1477).  The  possession  of  these  territories  was  success- 
fully maintained  by  Maximilian  in  a  war  with  France. 

§  61.   The  States  of  Italy. 
A.  In  Upper  Italy. 

271  4.  Venice,  which  had  been  raised  by  the  crusades  to 
c  the  rank  of  a  first-rate  commercial  and  naval  power,  and 
possessed  most  of  the  islands  and  maritime  towns  of  the 
Byzantine  empire,  was  engaged  for  125  years  in  a  war 
with  Genoa  (1256 — 1381)  respecting  the  trade  of  the 
Black  Sea.  At  the  end  of  that  period  a  peace  was  con- 
cluded at  Turin,  on  terms  advantageous  to  Venice.  The 
most  palmy  days  of  the  republic  were  in  the  first  half  of 
the  fifteenth  century,  when  a  monopoly  of  the  Indian  trade, 
by  way  of  Egypt,  was  secured  to  her  by  a  treaty  with  the 
Sultan  of  Egypt,  an  increase  of  territory  obtained  in  Upper 
Italy  and  Dalmatia  (partly  by  treaties  and  partly  by  con- 
quest), and  the  islands  of  Corfu  aud  Cyprus  added  to  her 
D  possessions.  Most  of  these  Greek  dominions  were  after- 
wards wrested  from  them  by  the  Turks;  and  the  discovery 
of  a  new  passage  to  the  East  Indies  destroyed  their  mono- 
poly of  the  Indian  trade,  and  completed  their  ruin.  The 
sovereign  authority  was  in  the  hands  of  a  great  council  of 
480  members,  who  at  first  were  chosen  annually  by  the 
people  out  of  the  entire  body  of  citizens,  but  at  a  later 
period  ( 1 297)  the  right  of  sitting  in  the  council  being  con- 


272 — 274.  §61.]     THE  STATES  OF  ITALY.  137 

fined  to  the  actual  members  and  their  families,  an  hereditary  A 
aristocracy  was  created. 

2.  In  Milan,  the  struggle  between  the  Ghibelline  no-  272 
bles,  headed  by  the  family  of  Visconti,  and  the  Guelphic 
burghers,  supported  by  the  family  of  Delia  Torre,  was 
terminated  by  Henry  VII.,  who  expelled  the  Torre,  and 
nominated  Matteo  Visconti  imperial  lieutenant  (vicar)  of 
Milan  (1310).     The  conquest  of  several  neighboring  cities 
enabled  Visconti  to  increase  the  possessions  of  his  house, 
which  under  John  Galeazzo  Visconti  (who  obtained  the 
grant  of  an  hereditary  dukedom  from  Wenceslaus)  was 
owner  of  almost  the  whole  of  Upper  Italy.     After  the  B 
extinction  of  the  male  line  of  the  Visconti,  the   supreme 
authority  was  conferred  on  Francesco  S  f  o  r  z  a,  a  mercenary 
soldier  in  the  Milanese  service,  who  made  the  dukedom 
hereditary  in  his  family. 

3.  The   republic  of  Genoa  acquired  some  maritime  273 
towns  and  considerable  commercial   advantages  in  con- 
sequence of  the  restoration  of  the  Greek  empire.     The 
conclusion  of  a  struggle  of  200  years  with  Pisa,  placed  ate 
their  disposal  the  greater  part  of  Corsica  and  Sardinia ; 
but  their  long  war  with  Venice,  and  still  more  their  own 
intestine   feuds,  so  weakened   them,  that  they  were  com- 
pelled to   submit   sometimes  to  Milanese,  sometimes   to 
French  domination. 

B.     In  Central  Italy. 

1.  In  Florence  the  people, or  guilds,  after  a  long  strug-  274 
gle  with  the  nobles,  obtained  the  ascendency,  conquered  the 
neighboring  districts,  and  divided  themselves  into  three 
classes,  viz.  higher  and  lower  guilds,  and  commons,  i.  e. 
persons  not  belonging  to  any  guild.  The  members  of  the  D 
higher  guilds  were,  generally  speaking,  bankers;  hence 
arose  an  aristocracy  of  wealth,  headed  in  the  fifteenth  cen- 
tury by  the  rich  and  powerful  family  of  the  Medici.  The 
foundation  of  their  importance  was  laid  by  John  di  Me- 
dici, the  wealthiest  banker  of  Florence.  His  son  Cosmo 
(1429 — 14G4)  was  driven  into  exile  by  the  jealousy  of  the 
other  bankers,  but  within  a  year  he  was  recalled,  and 
honored  with  the  title  of  father  of  his  country,  a  distinc- 
tion richly  merited  by  his  political  sagacity  and  liberal 


138  THE    MIDDLE    AGES.      [275 279.    §62. 

(274)  patronage  of  the  fine  arts.  Not  only  in  Florence  and 
A  Tuscany,  but  in  Umbria,  Venice,  and  even  in  Jerusalem, 
the  most  magnificent  works  of  architecture,  sculpture,  and 
painting,  bore  witness  to  his  exquisite  taste.  His  son 
Peter  died  soon  after  his  father  (1469),  to  whom  he  bore 
little  resemblance,  and  was  succeeded  by  Lorenzo,  whose 
munificent  patronage  of  the  arts  and  sciences  elevated 
Florence  to  the  rank  of  a  second  Athens  (1469 — 1492). 

275  2.  States  of  the  Church.    During  the  residence  of 
B  the  popes  at  Avignon  (1305 — 1376)  several  cities,  prin- 
cipally in  the  March  of  Ancona,  threw  off  the  papal  yoke, 
and  placed  themselves  under  the  control  of  tyrants.    Even 
Rome  itself  was  distracted  by  frequent  revolutions  (in  one 
of  which  a  plebeian  named  Cola  Rienzi  assumed  the  title 
of  tribune),  and  by  the  feuds  of  the  Colonna  (Ghibellines) 
and  Ursini  (Guelphs).     It  was  not  until  the  end  of  this 
period  that  the  States  of  the  Church  were  re-united.     Avig- 
non was  added  to  them  by  purchase  in  1348. 

C.     In  Lower  Italy. 

276  1-  In  Naples,  the  house  of  A njou  occupied  the  throne 
c  until  1442,  when  the  country  was  conquered  by  Alfonso  V, 

of  Arragon,  who  already  possessed  Sicily.  At  his  death 
Alfonso  bequeathed  Naples,  as  a  separate  kingdom,  to  his 
natural  son  Ferdinand,  whose  posterity  continued  to  reign 
until  the  year  1504. 

277  2.  Sicily  remained  a  distinct  kingdom  under  the  sons 
of  Peter  III.  of  Arragon  and  their  successors,  until  the 
extinction  of  the  family,  when  it  was  united  to  Arragon. 

§  62.  France. 

A.     Under  the  last  Capets 
(1270—1328). 

278  10.  Philip  III.  (1270—1285),  after  the  death  of  his 
D  father,  withdrew  his  army  from  Tunis,  married  his  son 

Philip  to  Johanna,  heiress  of  Navarre,  and  died  on  his 
return  from  an  unsuccessful  expedition  against  Arragon.' 

279  11.  Philip  IV.,  Le  Bel  (1285— 1314),  king  also  of 
Navarre,  in  right  of  his  wife  Johanna.  1  This  monarch,  the 
distinguishing  features  of  who£e 


280,  281.  §62.]  FRANCE.  139 

cunning,  avarice,  and  cruelty,  obtained  possession  of  Gui-  (279) 
enne  (which  he  afterwards  restored)  during  a  war  with  A 
England,  occasioned  by  a  quarrel  between  some  English 
and  French  sailors.  A  successful  insurrection  of  the  Flem- 
ings, at  that  time  allies  of  England,  compelled  him  to 
abandon  Flanders,  which  had  also  fallen  into  his  hands. 
Pope  Boniface  VIII.,  who  had  excommunicated  Philip  for 
extorting  contributions  from  the  clergy  for  the  prosecution 
of  this  war,  was  seized  by  the  king's  servants,  and  died  of 
grief.  The  next  pope  but  one,  Clement  V.  (Archbishop 
of  Bourdeaux),  established  himself  at  Avignon,  which  con- 
tinued to  be  the  papal  residence  from  1305  to  1370.  A  B 
cruel  persecution  was  carried  on  against  the  Knights  Tem- 
plars, whose  wealth  had  excited  the  cupidity  of  Philip. 
After  a  long  but  most  unfair  trial,  many  members  of  the 
order  were  condemned  to  be  burnt,  on  the  evidence  of 
perjured  witnesses,  or  after  confessions  extorted  by  the 
rack.  The  order  itself  was  entirely  suppressed  by  Pope 
Clement  V.  (at  the  council  of  Vienne). 

After  the  death  of  Philip  IV.  the  crown/ was  worn  in  280 
rapid  succession  by  his  three  sons,  Louis  X.,  Philip  V.  c 
(who  persuaded  the  estates  of  his  kingdom  to  pass"  an  act 
excluding  females  from  the  throne),  and  Charles  IV.,  who 
died  without  male  issue,  and  was  succeeded  by  his  cousin, 
Philip  of  Valois.     Navarre  was  settled  on  Johanna,  daugh- 
ter of  Louis  X.,  and  was  not  re-united  to  France  until  the 
accession  of  the  Bourbons  in  1589. 


B.     Under  kings  of  the  house  of  Valois 
(1328—1589). 

Louis  IX.  281 

Philip  III.  Robert  de  Clermont,  ] 


founder  of  the  Bourbon 


Philip  IV.  Charles  of  Valois.     family. 


A. 


Louis  X  ,  Philip  V.,Charles  IV.,  Isabella  Philip  VI. 

mar. 
Johanna.  Edward  II., 

King  of  England. 

Edwardlll. 


140  THE    MIDDLE    AGES.       [282 284.    §62. 

282  I.  Philip    VI.    (1328—1350).      The    claims   to   the 
A  throne  of  France  advanced  by  Edward  III.,  as  grandson  of 

Philip  IV.,  on  the  ground  that  his  mother  alone,  and  not 
her  male  issue,  was  excluded  from  the  succession,  occa- 
sioned a  war  between  England  and  France,  which  lasted 
more  than  a  hundred  years  (1339 — 1453).  Edward  III. 
(who  had  assumed  the  title  of  King  of  f  ranee)  formed  an 
alliance  with  the  Flemings,  under  Artevelde,  a  brewer  of 
Ghent,  and  the  Count  of  Artois,  who  had  been  expelled 
from  France  for  forgery,  and  obtained  a  splendid  naval 
B  victory  offSluys  (1340);  then  landed  in  Normandy  with 
his  son,  Edward  the  Black  Prince,  defeated  the  French  at 
Cressy  (1346),  and  took  Calais,  which  was  entirely  colo- 
nized by  the  English,  and  remained  in  their  possession 
until  the  year  1558.  Philip  added  Dauphine,  Champagne, 
and  Brie,  to  the  possessions  of  the  French  crown.  -  The 
right  of  voting  grants  of  the  public  money  was  conceded 
by  him  to  the  estates  of  the  realm.  He  died  during  an 
armistice  with  England. 

283  2.  John  the  Good  (1350—1364)  was   defeated    by 
c  the  Black   Prince  at    Maupertuis,  near   Poitiers  (1356), 

where  he  was  taken  prisoner  with  his  youngest  son  Philip, 
and  conveyed  to  London.  During  his  captivity  a  demo- 
cratic party  was  formed  at  Paris  by  Marcel,  president  of 
the  Parisian  guild  of  merchants,  whilst  almost  at  the  same 
time  a  disturbance  broke  out  in  the  north  of  France,  among 
the  peasants  (Jaquerie),  who  were  grievously  oppressed  by 
the  nobles.  After  defeating  these  undisciplined  bands,  the 
nobles  tendered  their  services  to  Prince  Charles,  who 
obtained  quiet  possession  of  Paris  after  the  assassination 
D  of  Marcel.  A  peace  was  concluded  at  Bretigny  (near 
Chartres),  on  the  following  terms, — Edward  111.  received 
Guienne,  Poitou,  Calais,  &c.,  as  souverain  possessions,  in 
return  for  his  renunciation  of  the  title  of  King  of  France, 
and  of  the  provinces  formerly  held  by  England.  On  the 
other  hand,  King  John  agreed  to  pay  a  considerable  ransom 
for  his  liberation :  but  this  not  being  forthcoming,  he  re- 
turned to  London,  where  he  died  a  prisoner,  after  bestow- 
ing the  vacant  dukedom  of  Burgundy  on  his  youngest  son, 
Philip  the  Flardy. 

284  3.  Charles  V.,  the  Wise  (1364—1380).     His  distin- 
guished general,  Bertrand  du  Guesclin,  cleared  the  kingdom 


285,  286.  §62.]  FRANCE.  141 

of  marauding  bands  of  mercenaries,  whom  he  led  into  Spain,  (284) 
where  a  disputed  succession  to  the  Castilian  throne  had  A 
occasioned  a  civil  war.     The  same  general,  in  a  war  which 
soon  afterwards  broke  out  between  France  and  England, 
wrested  from  the  English  crown  all  its  possessions  in  France 
except  Calais  and  a  part  of  Guienne. 

4.  Charles  VI.  (1380—1422)  at  first,  on  account  of  285 
his  minority,  and  afterwards  of  his  imbecility,1  was  placed  B 
under  the  guardianship  of  his  uncles  the  Dukes  of  Berry 
and  Burgundy,  whose  right  to  this  office  was  vehemently 
contested  by  the  Duke  of  Orleans,  brother  to  the  king. 
These  conflicting  claims  occasioned  the  formation  of  two 
parties,  one  of  which  sided  with  Burgundy,  whilst  the  other 
(headed  by  the  Compte  d'Armagnac)  supported  the  Duke  of 
Orleans.     After  the  assassination  of  Orleans,  a  bloody  civil 
war  raged  between  the  two  factions,  during  which  the 
English  again  entered  France  and  gained  the  victory  of 
Azincourt  (1415).     The  Burgundian  party  obtained  pos- c 
session  of  the  city  of  Paris,  which  they  held  until  the  death 

of  the  Duke  of  Burgundy,  who  was  assassinated  by  the 
attendants  of  the  Dauphin,  on  the  bridge  of  Montereau  (on 
the  Yonne).  His  son,  Philip  the  Good,  of  Burgundy,  im- 
plored the  assistance  of  Henry  V.  of  England,  who  entered 
Paris,  married  Catherine,  daughter  of  Charles  VI.,  and  was 
proclaimed  heir-presumptive  to  the  throne  of  France;  but 
died  before  Charles,  leaving  an  infant  son.  Two  months 
after  his  decease  Charles  died  also,  and  was  succeeded  by 
the  Dauphin  as 

5.  Charles  VII.   (1422— 1461),  whilst  at  the  same  286 
time  Henry  VI.  of  England  was  proclaimed  king  in  the  north  D 
of  France.    After  sustaining  two  defeats,  Charles  was  com- 
pelled to  cross  the  Loire,  and  the  city  of  Orleans  was  on  the 
eve  of  surrendering  to  the  English,  when  a  peasant  girl 
named  Joan  of  Arc,  the  Maid  of  Orleans,  a  native  of  Dom 
Remy,  near  Vaucouleurs,  in  Champagne,  placed  herself  at 
the  head  of  the  French  army,  and  compelled  the  English  to 
raise  the  siege  (1429).     Then  she  conducted  Charles  VII. 

in  triumph  to  the  city  of  Rheims,  where  he  was  crowned; 
but  falling  (1430)  into  the  hands  of  her  enemies  during 


Cards  were  invented,  it  is  said,  for  the  amusement  of  Charles  VI. 


142  THE    MIDDLE    AGES.  [287.    §62. 

(286)  the  siege  of  Compiegne,  she  was  tried  for  witchcraft,  and 

A  burnt  at  Rouen,  on  the  30th  of  May,  1431.  A  recon- 
ciliation was  effected  between  the  Duke  of  Burgundy  and 
Charles  VII.,  the  city  of  Paris  surrendering  to  the  king, 
whilst  the  English,  deprived  of  Normandy  and  Guienne, 
were  compelled,  after  a  fruitless  struggle,  to  content  them- 
selves with  the  possession  of  Calais  and  the  Channel 
Islands.  The  war  was  terminated,  without  any  formal 
conclusion  of  peace,  in  consequence  of  the  struggles  be- 
tween the  factions  of  the  red  and  white  roses  in  England. 
The  organization  of  some  companies  of  cavalry,  and  of  the 
francs-archers,  or  free  sharpshooters,  as  a  body  of  infantry, 

B  laid  the  foundation  of  a  standing  army.  The  influence 
exercised  over  the  mind  of  the  king  by  his  mistress,  Agnes 
Sorel,  occasioned  an  estrangement  between  Charles  and 
the  Dauphin,  who  sought  an  asylum  at  the  court  of  the 
Duke  of  Burgundy,  after  an  unsuccessful  attempt  to  de- 
prive his  father  of  the  crown. 

287  6.  Louis  XI.  (1461—1483)  attempted  to  establish  the 
absolute  power  of  the  crown  by  the  following  measures: 
1.  All  the  servants  of  his  father  were  dismissed,  and  their 
places  supplied  by  persons  who  were  indebted  for  their 
advancement  solely  to  Louis  himself.  2.  The  estates  of 
the  different  provinces  were  convoked  instead  of  the  great 
council  of  estates  of  the  realm.  3.  Measures  were  adopted 
for  humbling  the  princes  of  the  blood,  and  two  great  vassals 

c  of  the  crown,  the  Dukes  of  Burgundy  and  Brittany.  The 
result  of  this  policy  was  the  formation  of  a  league,  termed 
"la  ligue  du  bien  public,"  between  the  disgraced  ministers 
of  the  crown  and  the  two  dukes,  who  compelled  the  king, 
after  an  indecisive  battle  at  Montlheri,  to  make  important 
concessions,  wljich  he  afterwards  refused  to  ratify.  The 
league  was  soon  afterwards  dissolved  through  the  intrigues 
of  Louis,  by  whom  the  Liegeois  were  urged  to  make 

D  repeated  incursions  into  the  Burgundian  territory.  During 
one  of  these  inroads,  Louis,  who  had  rashly  visited  the 
Duke  of  Burgundy  at  Peronne,  was  detained  a  prisoner, 
and  only  released  on  condition  of  granting  several  impor- 
tant immunities  to  his  powerful  vassal.  In  revenge,  Louis, 
during  the  absence  of  Charles  the  Bold  (who  was  engaged, 
as  protector  of  the  Archbishop  of  Cologne,  in  reducing- the 
revolted  city  of  Neuss),  stirred  up  the  inhabitants  of  Lor- 


288,289.  §62.]     ENGLAND  AND  SCOTLAND.  148 

raine  and  the  Swiss  to  make  war  on  Burgundy.  After  re-  (287) 
ducing  Lorraine,  Charles  inarched  into  Switzerland,  where  A 
he  was  defeated  at  Granson  and  Murten,  in  1476. 
The  Duke  of  Lorraine,  who  had  been  deprived  of  his 
dominions,  was  restored  by  the  Swiss;  and  Charles,  in  an 
attempt  to  avenge  this  insult,  lost  his  life  before  Nancy 
in  1477.  The  dukedom  of  Burgundy  lapsed,  as  a  void  B 
male  fief,  to  the  crown  of  France;  but  the  numerous  Ger- 
man seignories  which  had  been  incorporated  with  Burgundy 
by  marriage,  purchase,  and  inheritance,  and  even  some  of 
the  smaller  French  fiefs,  were  afterwards  acquired  by 
Austria,  through  the  marriage  of  the  Archduke  Maximilian 
with  Mary  of  Burgundy,  daughter  and  sole  heiress  of 
Charles  the  Bold.  The  death  of  his  brother  enabled  Louis 
to  annex  Guienne  and  Normandy  to  France;  and  when 
the  house  of  Anjou  became  extinct,  he  inherited  Anjou, 
Provence,  and  Maine,  together  with  the  claims  of  that 
family  to  the  Neapolitan  throne.  His  son, 

7.  Charles  VIII.   (1483— 1498)  conquered  Naples,  288 
but  was  compelled  to  abandon  his  conquest  by  the  united  c 
forces  of  the  pope,  the  Emperor  Maximilian,  Ferdinand 
the    Catholic,  the  Duke  of  Milan,  and    the  Republic  of 
Venice.     With  him  expired  the  elder  line  of  the  house  of 
Valois. 


§  63.  England  and  Scotland. 
A.     Kings  of  the  house  of  Plantagenet. 

5.  Edward  I.  (1272—1307)  annexed  Wales  to  the  289 
English  crown.  His  son  Edward  assumed  the  title  of  D 
Prince  of  Wales,  which  has  ever  since  been  borne  by  the 
heir-apparent.  The  extinction  of  the  dynasty  of  the  house 
of  Kenneth  (1286)  was  followed  by  the  disputes  of  thir- 
teen claimants  to  the  Scottish  throne,  among  whom  the 
most  powerful  were  Balliol  and  Bruce.  Edward,  as  feudal 
sovereign  of  Scotland,  decided  this  dispute  by  placing 
John  Balliol  on  the  throne ;  but  the  new  king  immediately 
renounced  his  allegiance  to  the  crown  of  England,  and 
was  deposed  by  Edward,  who  subdued  Scotland,  but  died 
during  a  campaign  against  Robert  Bruce,  who  had  been 
crowned  by  the  insurgent  Scots. 


144  THE    MIDDLE    AGES.        [290,291.    §63. 

(289)  6.  Edward  II.  (1807— 1327),  son-in-law  of  Philip  IV. 
A  of  France.  The  feeble  government  of  this  monarch,  who 
was  a  mere  tool  in  the  hands  of  unworthy  favorites, 
encouraged  the  nobles  to  resist  the  authority  of  the  crown, 
whilst  at  the  same  lime  the  Scotch  not  only  maintained 
their  independence,  but  even  made  frequent  incursions  into 
England,  and  at  length  compelled  the  king  to  grant  an 
armistice.  His  wife  Isabella,  who  had  visited  France,  in 
the  hope  of  putting  an  end  to  a  war  which  had  broken  out 
between  Edward  and  her  brother  Charles  IV.,  conspired 
with  her  paramour  Mortimer  against  the  unfortunate  king, 
and  having  landed  in  England  at  the  head  of  some  Nether- 
landish troops,  and  gained  over  a  majority  of  the  nobles 
and  the  rabble  of  London,  she  compelled  the  parliament 
to  depose  Edward  (who  was  soon  afterwards  brutally 
murdered)  and  to  proclaim  his  son 

290  7.  Edward  III.  (1327— 1337),  who  emancipated  him- 
B  self  from  all  control  by  hanging  Mortimer,  and  banishing 

his  mother  from  court.  After  the  death  of  the  Scotch 
king,  Robert  Bruce  (f  1329),  his  son  David  was  called  to 
the  throne,  but  was  soon  compelled  by  the  English  to 
abdicate  in  favor  of  Edward  Balliol,  who  consented  to 
recognize  the  supremacy  of  Edward  III.  The  disputes 
respecting  the  right  to  the  Scottish  throne  continued  until 
c  the  accession  of  the  Stuarts  ip  1371.  The  frequent  pecu- 
niary embarrassments,  occasioned  by  the  expenses  of  a  war 
with  France,  compelled  Edward  to  convoke  his  parliament 
seventy  times.  During  this  reign  the  great  council  of  the 
nation  was  first  divided  into  the  Upper  House  (prelates 
and  barons),  and  the  Lower  (inferior  nobles  and  represen- 
tatives of  cities). 

291  8.  Richard    II.    (1377—1399),    son   of  the    Black 
D  Prince,  suppressed  an  insurrection  of  the  people,  occa- 
sioned by  the  oppressive  system  of  taxation;   but  after- 
wards became  the  slave  of  unworthy  favorites,  and  was 
deprived  of  almost  all  his  authority  by  his  uncle  the  Duke 
of  Gloucester  and  a  commission  of  regency.    The  reins  of 
government  were  again  placed  in  his  hands  by  the  parlia- 
ment, and  a  second  time  wrested  from  him  by  Henry, 
duke  of  Lancaster  (a  grandson  of  Edward  III.,  who 
had  been  banished  by  Richard).     The  unfortunate  king 


292,293.  §63.]     ENGLAND  AND  SCOTLAND.  145 

*^  - 

was  taken  prisoner,  and  compelled  by  the  parliament  to  (291) 
abdicate  in  favor  of  his  rival.  A 


B.     Three  kings  of  the  house  of  Lancaster, 
a  collateral  branch  of  the  house  of  Planlagenet. 
(1399—1461.)   , 

1.  Henry    IV.  (1399 — 1413.)     His  reign  was  dis- 292 
turbed  by  repeated  conspiracies,  all  of  which  were  rendered  B 
abortive   by  the  courage  and  sagacity  of  the  king.     His 
brave  son, 

2.  Henry  V.,  obtained    a  brilliant   victory  over  the  293 
French    at  Agincourt,  and'   conquered    Normandy.     He 
married  the  daughter  of  Charles  VI.,  and  was  nominated 
successor  to  the  French  throne  after  the  death  of  his  father- 
in-law,  but  died  before  him,  and  was  succeeded  by  his 
infant  son. 


146 


THE    MIDDLE    AGES. 


[294.  §63. 


294 

A 


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3  «  "5 


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.  c 


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fj* 


295 — 297.  §63.]     ENGLAND  AND  SCOTLAND.  147 

3.  Henry  VI.  (1422—1461),  who  assumed  the  title  295 
of  King  of  France,  but  was  soon  deprived  of  all  his  pos-  A 
sessions  in  that  country,  with  the  exception  of  Calais  and 
the  Channel  Islands.  These  losses,  added  to  the  disgust 
occasioned  by  the  conduct  of  the  king's  favorites,  pro. 
duced  an  opposition  in  parliament,  headed  by  his  cousin, 
Richard  duke  of  York,  who  claimed  the  crown  as  a  de- 
scendant of  the  second  son  of  Edward  III.,  the  house  of 
Lancaster  tracing  its  descent  from  the  third.  This  dispute 
occasioned  the  wars  of  the  red  (Lancaster)  and  white 
(York)  roses.  Richard  was  nominated  protector  during 
the  insanity  of  the  king,  but  refused  to  resign  the  office 
on  his  recovery.  Two  battles  were  then  fought  (at  St.  B 
Alban's  in  1455,  and  Northampton  in  1460),  in  each  of 
which  the  king  was  taken  prisoner,  but  released ;  and 
finally,  he  agreed  to  abdicate  in  favor  of  Richard.  The 
war  having  been  renewed  by  the  queen,  Margaret  of  Anjou, 
Richard  was  slain  in  the  battle  of  Wakefield.  His  son 
Edward  then  assumed  the  title  of  king,  and  defeated  the 
Lancastrian  party  near  Towton. 


C.  Three  kings  of  the  house  of  York. 
(1461—1485.) 

1.  Edward  IV.  (1461—1483.)     After  an  ineffectual  296 
attempt  to  replace  her  husband  on  the  throne  by  means  of  c 
French  troops,  Margaret  formed  an  alliance  with  the  Earl 

of  Warwick  (who  had  been  ill-treated  by  Edward,  and  had 
taken  refuge  in  France),  and  with  his  son-in-law,  the 
Duke  of  Clarence.  Warwick  returned  to  England,  de- 
posed Edward,  and  reseated  Henry  on  the  throne  (1470); 
but  in  the  following  year,  Edward,  who  was  supported  by 
his  brother-in-law,  Charles  the  Bold,  of  Burgundy,  re- 
appeared in  England,  and  defeated  the  forces  of  Warwick 
and  Margaret.  Henry  VI.  died  suddenly  in  the  Tower 
(possibly  by  the  dagger  of  Richard,  duke  of  Gloucester), 
and  the  house  of  Lancaster  became  extinct,  with  the  ex 
ception  of  Henry  Tudor,  who  fled  to  Brittany. 

2.  Edward  V.  (1483),  soon  after  his  father's  death,  297 
was  set  aside  by  his  guardian  and  uncle,  Richard  of  Glou-  D 
cester,  who  ascended  the  throne  as 


148  THE    MIDDLE    AGES.         [298 301.    §64,65. 

298  3.  Richard  III.   (1483—1485.)     In  the  year  1485  he 
A  was  slain  at  the  battle  of  Bosworth,  and  Henry  Tudor 

(earl  of  Richmond)  as  King  Henry  VII.,  reconciled  the 
conflicting  claims  of  the  two  houses,  by  a  marriage  with 
Elizabeth  of  York. 

§  64.   The  Pyren&an  Peninsula. 

299  The  only  possession  which  still  remained  (in  1237)  in 
the  hands  of  the  Moors,  was  the  little  kingdom  of  Granada, 
generally  dependent  on  Castile,  but  enjoying  considerable 
political,  agricultural,  and  commercial  prosperity,  until  its 
union  with  Castile  (in  consequence  of  a  disputed  succes- 
sion) in  1492. 

300  The  two  Christian  kingdoms — Arragon (to  which 
B  Sardinia,  and  afterwards    Sicily,  and,  for  a  short  time, 

Naples,  were  annexed,  and  which  was  partly  governed  by 
a  peculiar  magistracy  (the  Justitia),  acting  as  a  mediator 
between  the  king  and  the  estates  of  his  realm)  and  Cas- 
tile, were  united  in  1479,  by  the  marriage  of  Ferdinand 
of  Arragon  with  Isabella,  the  heiress  of  Castile.  Each 
kingdom  retained  the  constitution  by  which  it  had  been 
governed  previously  to  the  union.  Granada  was  added  in 
1492.  Navarre,  which  had  been  annexed  at  an  early  period 
to  France,  was  settled  in  1316  on  Johanna,  daughter  of 
Louis  X.,and  became  thenceforward  a  separate  independent 
c  kingdom.  In  Portugal,  after  the  extinction  of  the  legitimate 
Burgundian  line  in  1383,  a  new  dynasty  was  founded  by 
John  I.,  a  natural  son  of  Peter  I.  In  the  fifteenth  century 
Madeira,  the  Azores,  the  Cape  Verd  Islands,  and  the  coast 
of  Guinea,  were  discovered  by  Henry  the  Voyager  (third 
son  of  John  I.).  In  1486,  Bartholomew  Diaz  reached  the 
cabo  tormentoso,  afterwards  named  by  John  II.  cabo  de 
bonna  esperanza  (Cape  of  Good  Hope). 


B.  The  East. 

§  65.   The  Byzantine  empire  under  the  Palaologi. 
(1261—1453.) 

301      Under  the  dynasty  of  the  Palseologi,  the  fragments  of  the 
D  ancient  Byzantine  empire  were  re-united,  with  the  exception 


302,  303.  §  66,  67.]     BYZANTINE  EMPIRE.  149 

of  a  few  small  independent  seignories,  which  had  been  (301) 
established  by  the  Latin  knights  ;  but  the  government  of  A 
sovereigns,  of  whom  the  majority  were  feeble-minded  and 
incapable,  and  whose  administration  was  frequently  embar- 
rassed by  civil  wars,  ecclesiastical  disputes,  and  court- 
intrigues,  opposed  but  an  ineffectual  barrier  to  the  ad- 
vancing tide  of  0 1 1  o  m  a  n  enc  roachment.  An  unsuccessful 
attempt  was  made  to  obtain  assistance  from  the  West,  by  a 
union  of  the  Greek  and  Latin  Churches,  and  the  emphe 
was  now  on  the  verge  of  destruction,  when  an  invasion  of 
the  Mongols  withheld  their  enemies  for  a  time  ;  but  the 
respite  was  of  short  duration,  for  on  the  29th  of  May, 
1453,  Constantinople,  after  a  short  siege,  surrendered  to 
Mohammed  II.  The  empire,  also,  of  Trebizond,  and  all  B 
the  smaller  Greek  states  in  the  islands,  the  Morea,  Epirus, 
and  Attica,  fell  into  the  hands  of  the  conqueror.  The 
kingdom  of  Cyprus  alone  became  a  dependency  of  the  re- 
public of  Venice. 

§  66.    The  Osmans. 

An  independent  empire  was  founded  in  the  fourteenth  302 
century  on  the  ruins  of  the  Seldschuk  kingdom  of  Iconium,  c 
by  Osman,  emir  of  a  nomadic  tribe.  Its  boundaries, 
which  at  first  comprehended  only  Bithynia,  were  rapidly 
extended,  until  they  embraced  the  greater  part  of  Asia 
Minor  and  Thrace.  Adrianople  became  the  imperial  resi- 
dence in  1365.  The  Osmans  had  already  compelled 
Macedonia,  Bulgaria,  Wallachia,  and  Moldavia,  to  ac- 
knowledge their  supremacy,  and  were  advancing  into 
Styria,  after  a  victory  over  Sigismund,  king  of  Hungary, 
near  Nicopolis  in  1396,  when  they  were  themselves  de- 
feated in  the  East  by  the  great  Mongol  conqueror,  Timur  D 
Lenk  (Tamerlane).  Notwithstanding,  however,  this  check, 
the  power  of  the  Osmans  was  speedily  re-established,  and 
in  the  year  1453,  Mohammed  II.  became  master  of  the 
Byzantine  empire  and  the  empire  of  Trebizond  (see  §  65), 
Servia,  Wallachia,  Bosnia,  Albania,  and  several  settlements 
of  the  Genoese  on  the  Black  Sea. 

§  67.   The  Mongols. 

The  Mongols  became  again  a  formidable  power  under  303 
Timur  Lenk,  or  Tamerlane,  a  descendant  of  Dschingis 


150  THE  MIDDLE  AGES.  [304,  305.  §  68,  69. 

(303)  Khan  (1369 — 1405),  who  founded  a  kingdom  at  Samar- 
A  cand,  in  great  Bucharia,  and  thence  carried  on  successful 
wars  against  Persia,  a  portion  of  India,  and  Natolia; 
sacked  Moscow  and  Asof  in  Russia,  and  died  on  an  expe- 
dition against  the  Chinese.  After  his  death,  this  mighty 
empire,  which  extended  from  the  wall  of  China  and  the 
Ganges  to  the  shores  of  the  Mediterranean,  was  split  into 
a  number  of  petty  principalities. 

C.  The  north-east  of  Europe. 
§  68.   Scandinavia. 

304  Denmark,  at  the  commencement  of  this  period,    was 
B  divided  (among  the  sons  of  Eric  IV.)  into  several  prin- 
cipalities, which  were  re-united  by  Waldemar  III.,  after 
the  loss  of  Esthonia.      Margaret,  daughter  of  this  sove- 
reign, married  Haco  VIII.,  King  of  Norway, .and  after  the 
deaths  of  her  father  and  husband,  governed  the  two  king- 
doms as  guardian  of  her  son  Olaf,  whose  early  decease 

c  placed  both  Denmark  and  Norway  at  her  absolute  dis- 
posal. In  Sweden,  which  at  an  earlier  period  had  been 
united  to  Norway  (from  1319  to  1365),  the  estates,  dis- 
gusted at  the  avarice  of  their  king  (Albert,  a  prince  of 
Mecklenburg),  offered  the  crown  to  Margaret  of  Denmark. 
Thus  the  three  Scandinavian  kingdoms  of  Sweden,  Den- 
mark, and  Norway,  were  united  (by  the  treaty  of  C  a  1  m  a  r, 
1397)  under  one  sovereign,  each,  nevertheless,  retaining 
its  own  parliament  and  code  of  laws.  Margaret  was  suc- 
ceeded by  Eric  of  Pomerania,  her  sister's  grandson,  and  his 

D  nephew  Christopher  of  Bavaria.  The  throne  of  Denmark 
and  Norway  was  then  filled  by  Christian  I.  (of  the  house 
of  Oldenburg),  who  had  married  Christopher's  widow. 
Schleswig  and  Holstein  were  soon  added  by  inheritance  to 
the  possessions  of  the  new  royal  house,  which  was  either 
not  recognized  at  all  in  Sweden,  or  compelled  to  intrust 
the  administration  of  that  kingdom  to  a  native  viceroy,  or 
president. 

§  69.  Russia. 

305  Russia,  where  the  grand  principality  of  Wladimir  (which 
comprised  also  Novgorod)  was  united  to  Moskwa,  or  Mos- 
cow, in  1328,  was  deprived  by  the  Lithuanians  and  Poles 


306,  307.  §  70.]       RUSSIA — POLAND.  151 

(during  the  period  of  its  dependence  on  the  Mongol  empire)  (305) 
of  several  of  its  western  provinces,  such  as  Volhynia,  Kiev,  A 
Podolia,  Red  and  White  Russia;  but  after  several  long 
and  bloody  struggles  (during  which  a  brilliant  victory  was 
obtained  on  the  Don,  by  Demetrius  Donski,  and  successful 
resistance  was  offered  to  the  attacks  of  Timur),  the  Rus- 
sians under  Ivan  the  Great  emancipated  themselves  from 
the  tyranny  of  the  (so  called)  golden  Horde  in  Kaptschak. 
The  Khanate  of  Kaptschak  was  then  divided   into  four 
kingdoms  (Grim,  Astrachan,  Kasan,  and  Turan).    Ivan  the  B 
Great,  the  real  founder  of  the  Russian  empire,  extended 
his  dominions  to  the  borders  of  Lithuania,  exacted  tribute 
from  tne  Khanate  of  Kasan,  laid  the  foundation  of  an  im- 
proved constitution,  and  was  the  first  Russian  sovereign 
who  assumed  the  title  of  Czar. 

§  70.  Poland. 

1.  Under  the  Piasts  (840—1386),  who  re-assumed  the  306 
title  of  king  in  1320,  Great  Poland  (on  the  Lower  Warthe),  c 
and  Little  Poland  (on  the  Upper  Vistula,  or  Cracow  and 
Sendomir)  were  united,  Cracow  being  the  place  appointed 

for  the  coronation  of  the  Polish  kings.  Casimir  the  Great, 
the  last  king  of  the  Piast  male  line,  was  deprived  of  Silesia 
by  Bohemia,  and  of  Pomerella  by  the  knights  of  the  Teu- 
tonic order ;  but  on  the  other  hand,  Galicia,  or  Red  Russia, 
Podolia,  and  the  feudal  sovereignty  of  Masovia,  were 
acquired  by  this  monarch,  who  greatly  improved  the  con- 
dition of  his  people  by  the  establishment  of  a  supreme 
court  of  justice  and  a  university  at  Cracow,  and  by  a 
succession  of  benefits  conferred  on  the  citizen  and  peasant 
estates  (hence  his  title  of  the  "  peasant's  king  ").  Casimir 
was  succeeded  by  his  sister's  son,  Lewis  the  Great,  king 
of  Hungary,  who  secured  the  succession  for  one  of  his 
daughters,  by  granting  various  important  privileges  to  the 
nobility.  Lithuania,  which  since  the  Mongol  invasion  had  D 
become  an  independent  government,  was  re- united  to 
Poland  by  the  marriage  of  Hedwig  (youngest  daughter  of 
the  king  of  Poland)  to  Jagello,  duke  of  Lithuania,  who  was 
baptized  (with  all  his  subjects),  and  assumed  the  name  of 
Wladislaw  II. 

2.  Under  the  descendants  of  Jagello  (1386 — 


152  THE  MIDDLE  AGES.    [308,  309.  §71,  72. 

307  1572),  Wladislaw  II.  was  compelled  to  recognize  the  right 
A  of  election  claimed  by  the  estates,  and  to  allow  the  Lithu- 
anians grand  dukes  of  their  own,  subject  to  the  supremacy 
of  the  Polish  crown  ( —  1502).     In  the  year  1410  Wla- 
dislaw defeated  the  Teutonic  order  at  Tannenberg,  and 
obtained  possession  (by  the  peace  of  Thorn)  of  Samogitia, 
to  which  by  a  second  peace,  concluded  at  the  same  place 
(in  1466),  Casimir  II.  added  West  Prussia,  and  the  feudal 
sovereignty  of  East  Prussia.     Thus  the  kingdom  of  Poland 
extended  from  the  Black  Sea  to  the  Baltic. 

§  71.  Prussia  under  the  Teutonic  order. 

308  The  Teutonic  order,  which*  since  the  year  1309  had 
B  been  settled  at  Marienburg,  had  acquired,  partly  by  con- 
quest and  partly  by  purchase,  Pomerella,  Esthonia,  Neu- 
mark,  and   Samogitia,  so  that  its  empire  at  last  compre- 
hended the  entire   coast  of  the   Baltic   from  Dantzic  to 
Narva,  with  the   islands  of  Gothland   and   Oesel.     The 
golden  period  of  this  dynasty  was  from  1351  to  1382,  un- 
der the  Grand  Master  Winrich  von  Kniprode ;  but  a  single 
defeat  at  Tannenberg,  in  1419  (which  terminated  the 
war  between  the  Lithuanians  and  Poles),  completely  shat- 
tered its  power,  although  the  brave  defence  of  Marienburg, 
by  Henry  von  Plauen,  obtained  for  it  (at  the  peace  of 
Thorn,  in  1411,  see  §  70)  more  favorable  terms  than  could 

c  reasonably  have  been  anticipated.  The  insufferable 
tyranny  of  the  order  was  soon  afterwards  resisted  by  a 
confederacy  of  nobles  and  cities  (at  Marienwerder),  which 
publicly  repudiated  its  authority,  and  sought  the  protection 
of  Poland.  After  a  twelve  years'  war  with  the  confeder- 
ation and  Poland,  a  second  peace  was  concluded  at  Thorn 
in  1466,  the  order  ceding  Western  Prussia  to  Poland,  and 

D  consenting  to  hold  Eastern  Prussia  as  a  Polish  fief.  The 
head-quarters  of  the  order  were  transferred  to  Konigsberg. 
Until  the  year  1513  Livonia,  Esthonia,  and  Courland, 
were  governed  by  the  provincial  grand  master  of  the  Or- 
der of  the  Sword,  subject  to  the  supreme  authority  of  the 
Teutonic  order. 

§  72.  Hungary. 

309  Scarcely  had  Hungary  (including  Transylvania,  Scla- 
vonia,  Croatia,  and    Bosnia)  begun  to  recover  from  the 


310.    §73.]  PRUSSIA HUNGARY.  153 

effects  of  the  Mongol  invasions,  when  the  extinction  of  (309) 
the  Arpad  dynasty  occasioned  fresh  struggles,  which  ter-  A 
minated  at  length  in  the  accession  of  a  prince  of  the 
House  of  Anjou,  Charles  Robert  (1308 — 1342),  a 
great-grandson  of  Stephen  V.,  whose  vigorous  govern- 
ment, followed  by  the  wise  administration  of  his  son 
Lewis  the  Great,  raised  Hungary  to  a  position  which  she 
had  never  before  occupied.  Lewis  the  Great  (1342 — 
1382),  by  the  acquisition  of  Dalmatia,  the  feudal  supre- 
macy of  Servia,  Bulgaria,  Wallachia,  and  Moldavia,  and 
finally  of  the  crown  of  Poland  (as  nephew  and  heir  of 
Casimir  III.),  became  the  most  powerful  monarch  of 
Europe.  He  was  succeeded,  after  a  short  struggle  be-  B 
tween  rival  candidates,  by  his  son-in-law  Sigismund,  a 
prince  of  the  house  of  Luxemburg  (1387 — 1437),  who 
was  too  feeble  either  to  maintain  the  prerogative  of  the 
crown  against  rebels  at  home,  or  to  protect  the  kingdom 
from  foreign  enemies.  The  short  reigns  of  his  son-in-law 
Albert  of  Austria,  and  the  King  of  Poland,  were  fol- 
lowed by  the  accession  of  Albert's  posthumous  son  Ladis- 
laus,  who  was  succeeded  by  a  native  prince,  Matthias  Cor- 
vinus  (son  of  the  brave  Hunyad,  regent  of  the  kingdom 
during  Albert's  minority).  His  violation  of  the  conditions  c 
to  which  he  had  solemnly  pledged  himself  at  his  election 
so  offended  the  electors,  that  they  offered  the  crown  to 
the  Emperor  Frederick  III. ;  but  the  claims  of  this  new 
candidate  were  successfully  resisted  by  Matthias,  whose 
victories  over  the  Osmans,  Bohemians,  and  the  emperor, 
procured  for  himself  and  his  kingdom  a  reputation,  which 
was  maintained  by  the  establishment  of  a  standing  army, 
the  encouragement  which  he  afforded  to  artists  and  learned 
men,  and  the  great  improvement  effected  (though  not 
without  the  imposition  of  heavy  taxes)  in  every  branch  of 
the  administration. 

§  73.  Religion,  Arts,  Sciences,  fyc.,  during  the  Fourth 
Period. 

1.  The  Church.    Lithuania,  the  last  heathen  nation  of  310 
Europe,  had  embraced,  as  we  have  seen,  the  Christian  D 
religion,  and  discoveries  on  the  western  coast  of  Africa 
were  preparing  the  way  for  its  reception  in  a  quarter  of  the 

globe  still  more  barbarous.     During  this  period  the  influ- 

7* 


154  THE  MIDDLE  AGES.         [311.  §73. 

(310)  ence  of  the  papacy,  although  never  lost,  was  grievously 
A  endangered  by  the  disputes  of  the  pope  with  Philip  IV.  of 
France  and  Louis  the  Bavarian,  as  well  as  by  the  teaching 
of  Wickliffe  and  Huss,  and  more  than  all,  by  the  seventy 
years'  residence  of  the  popes  at  Avignon,  the  forty  years'" 
schism,  and  the  contest  between  the  council  of  Basle  and 
Eugene  IV.  The  great  object  of  that  council,  as  well  as 
of  the  council  of  Constance,  had  been  the  limitation  of  the 
papal  power ;  but  the  hopes  of  ecclesiastical  reform,  which 
thousands  had  cherished  at  the  opening  of  the  latter,  had 
vanished  long  before  the  termination  of  its  session.  A 
terrible  pestilence,  termed  the  "Black  Death,"  which 
devastated  western  Europe  in  the  fourteenth  century,  occa- 
sioned the  formation  of  societies  of  both  sexes  for  the  care 

B  of  the  sick  and  the  burial  of  the  dead.  Renewed  attempts 
to  re-unite  the  Greek  and  Latin  churches  were  successful 
to  a  certain  extent,  a  convention  having  been  executed  by 
representatives  of  the  two  parties,  at  a  synod  held  at 
Florence;  but  the  proceedings  of  the  synod  were  never 
recognized  either  by  the  people,  or  those  of  the  clergy 
who  remained  at  Constantinople. 
311  2.  Political  Constitution.  The  spirit  of  political 

c  combination,  which  had  been  awakened  in  the  preceding 
century,  continued  to  spread,  particularly  in  Germany, 
where  confederacies  of  cities,  nobles,  &c.,  manifested  the 
extent  of  its  influence.  In  France,  the  power  of  the  king 
was  steadily  augmented  by  the  acquisition  of  crown  lands, 
whilst  the  reverse  was  the  case  in  Germany,  where  the 
narrow-minded  personal  ambition  of  the  emperors  led 
them  to  seek  the  aggrandizement  of  their  own  families  at 
the  expense  of  the  imperial  prerogative,  which  was  weak- 
ened by  their  reckless  grants  of  immunities  and  revenues 
to  cities  and  nobles,  in  return  for  some  personal  benefit. 

D  By  this  policy  the  German  empire  was  split  into  a  number 
of  petty  principalities,  forming  a  sort  of  federal  republic, 
with  an  elective  president  at  its  head.  In  Italy,  a  system 
of  political  counterpoise  was  maintained,  chiefly  by  means 
of  Florence,  which  occupied  a  middle  position  between  the 
commonwealth  of  the  north  (Venice  and  Milan),  and  the 
absolute  monarchies  of  the  south  (States  of  the  Church  and 
Naples).  The  constitution  of  the  east  was  a  military 
despotism.  At  this  period  the  most  remarkable  pecu- 


312.    §73.]  RELIGION,    ARTS,    ETC.  155 

liarity  in  the  administration  of  justice,  was  the  existence  of  (311) 
the  Free  Court,  or  Vehmgericht  of  Westphalia,  a  dark  and  A 
mysterious   tribunal,  which  judged  in  secret,  and  soon 
spread  over  the  whole  of  Germany.     The  origin,  charac- 
ter, limits,  and  regulations  of  this  institution,  are  involved 
in  impenetrable  obscurity. 

3.  In  the  Sciences,  three  causes  united  to  produce  312 
new  life  :  (1)  the  rapid  increase  in  the  number  of  universi- 
ties, of  which  more  than  fifty  were  founded  at  this  period 
(in  Germany:  Prague,  1348;  Vienna,  1365;  Heidelberg, 
1386;  Cologne,  1388;  Erfurt;  and  in  the  fifteenth  cen- 
tury, Wurtzburg,  Leipzic,  Rostock,  Greifswalde,  Freiburg, 
Treves,  Ingoldstadt,  and  Mainz)  :  (2)  the  revival  of  the 
study  of  classical  literature.  The  attempted  reconciliation  B 
between  the  Eastern  and  Western  Churches,  and  still  more, 
the  conquest  of  the  Byzantine  empire  by  the  Turks,  had 
inundated  Italy  with  a  host  of  learned  Greeks,  who  brought 
with  them  their  literary  treasures,  and  were  installed  as 
professors  of  their  native  language  at  the  universities,  or 
found  an  honorable  asylum  in  the  palaces  of  the  Medici 
and  other  noble  Italian  families.  Thus  a  better  taste  in  c 
literature  was  introduced  and  propagated  through  the 
exertions  of  these  illustrious  foreigners  and  their  native 
disciples,  Joh.  Boccaccio,  Laurentius  Valla,  Marcilius  Fici- 
nus,  &c. ;  and  the  German  writers,  Agricola  and  Reuchlin. 
At  the  same  time  academies,  or  learned  societies  (e.g.  that 
of  the  Platonic  philosophy  founded  at  Florence,  by  Cosmo 
di  Medici)  ;  new  schools  and  libraries  (the  Vatican,  &c.), 
were  established  in  different  parts  of  Europe  :  (3)  the 
invention  of  printing,  byJohnGansfleisch,  of  Sul- 
geloch  (Sorgenloch),  commonly  called  Gutenberg  of 
Mainz,  who  had  already  tried  many  experiments,  during  a 
sojourn  of  twenty  [?]  years  at  Strasburg,  and  on  his  return 
(1445)  to  his  native  town,  brought  his  plans  to  perfection, 
with  the  assistance  of  Peter  Schoffer,  and  a  rich  goldsmith 
named  John  Fust  (1450).  The  first  printed  book  was  Gu-  D 
tenberg's  Latin  Bible  (finished  in  1456).  In  the  scholastic 
Aristotelic  philosophy  (which  was  not  superseded  by  the 
new  Platonic  philosophy  until  the  end  of  the  mediaeval 
period),  the  distinction  continued  to  exist  between  the 
Realists  (who  maintained  that  general  ideas  were  things), 
and  the  Nominalists  (who  contended  that  they  were  only 


156  THE  MIDDLE  AGES.        [313.  §73. 

(312)  words).     Both  these  schools  were  opposed  to  the  Mystics. 

A  The  use  of  the  vernacular  language  in  historical  writing 
became  more  common.  Geographical  science  was  pro- 
moted by  the  travels  of  missionaries,  ambassadors,  and 
merchants,  and  the  discoveries  of  the  Portuguese  ;  the 
study  of  mathematics  and  medicine  by  translations  of 
the  best  Greek  treatises  on  those  subjects. 
313  4.  Art.  (a)  Poetry  flourished  most  in  Italy,  where  the 

B  Florentine  Dante  Alighieri  (fl321)  won  for  himself  the 
title  of  "  Father  of  Italian  poetry,"  by  the  publication  of 
his  "  Divina  Commedia"  (Wanderings  in  Heaven,  Hell, 
and  Purgatory).  The  sonnets  of  Francesco  Petrarca  (Pe- 
trarch), on  Laura  of  Sade  (fl374),  and  the  Decamerone 
of  Giovanni  Boccaccio  (fl375),  are  also  works  of  no 
ordinary  merit.  The  Tuscan  dialect,  in  which  Boccaccio 
wrote,  became  thenceforward  the  language  of  Italian  lite- 
rature. In  Germany,  as  in  France,  the  drama  owed  its 
development  to  the  mysteries  and  Shrovetide  mummeries 

C  (as  they  were  called)  of  the  Romish  Church.  The  ser- 
mons of  John  Tauler  are  the  earliest  attempt  at  German 
prose  composition.  The  father  of  English  poetry  was 
Geoffrey  Chaucer  (fl400).  (b)  Architecture.  In  addi- 
tion to  the  Gothic,  which  was  occupied  partly  in  com- 
pleting the  works  commenced  in  the  preceding  century, 
and  partly  in  constructing  new  edifices  (the  church  of 
St.  Mary,  at  Niirnburg  ;  the  cathedrals  of  Ulm,  Antwerp, 
and  Milan),  there  arose  in  Italy  a  new  school,  which  pro- 
fessed to  copy  the  monuments  of  classical  antiquity.  The 
best  architects  in  this  style  were  at  Pisa  and  Florence. 

D  (c)  Painting  was  brought  to  great  perfection  (a)  in  Italy 
by  the  Tuscan  or  Florentine  school  (which  numbered 
among  its  professors  Leonardo  da  Vinci  (J1519),  the 
inventor  of  perspective),  as  well  as  by  the  Roman  and 
other  schools :  (b)  in  Germany,  by  the  earlier  Cologne 
(Meister  Wilhelm)  and  Flemish  schools  (the  two  brothers 
van  Eyck).  (d)  Sculpture  in  clay,  bronze,  and  marble  (by 
Donate  of  Florence  and  others)  emulated  the  perfection  of 
ancient  art.  (e)  Copperplate  printing  was  invented  in  Ger- 
many in  the  fifteenth  century.  (/)  Music  was  improved  by 
the  invention  of  singing  in  parts,  the  addition  of  pedals  to 
the  organ,  and  various  important  alterations  in  the  con- 
struction of  other  instruments. 


313.    §73.]  RELIGION,    ARTS,    ETC.  157 

5.  Trade,  Navigation,  and  Manufactures,  (a)  In  (313) 
the  south,  the  maritime  trade  was  almost  exclusively  in  the  A 
hands  of  the  Italians.  The  command  of  the  Mediterranean 
was  at  first  divided  between  Venice  and  Genoa,  the  former 
possessing  the  East  Indian,  Syrian,  and  African  trade,  the 
latter  the  trade  to  the  Black  Sea,  Byzantium,  and  the 
Levant ;  both  republics  having  also  settlements  in  the 
islands,  and  even  in  Greece  and  the  Tauric  Cherso- 
nesus.  But  the  long  war  (see  §  61),  which  ended  in  the 
triumph  of  Venice  over  her  rival,  placed  at  her  disposal 
the  trade  to  the  Levant  and  the  Black  Sea,  in  addition  to 
her  former  commercial  advantages,  (b)  All  the  coasts  of  fc 
western  and  northern  Europe  belonged  to  the  German 
Hans  a.  This  union  of  nearly  eighty  Netherlandish, 
North-German,  and  Prussian  cities,  for  the  protection  of 
their  commerce  from  piracy  and  violence,  had  gradually 
been  formed  (since  the  thirteenth  century)  out  of  several 
smaller  Kansas  or  associations,  and  was  at  first  divided 
into  three  branches:  (1)  the  Wendish-Saxon ;  (2)  the 
Westphalian-Prussian  ;  and  (3)  the  Gothlandish  towns  ; 
i.  e.  the  Germans  in  Gothland,  Livonia,  and  Sweden  ;  and 
at  a  later  period  into  four,  viz.  the  Westphalian,  of  which 
Cologne  was  the  centre  ;  the  Prussian,  which  had  Dantzig ; 
the  Wendish,  Liibec  ;  and  the  Saxon,  Brunswick,  for 
their  respective  commercial  capitals.  The  Hansa  had  c 
depots  at  Bruges,  Novgorod,  in  all  the  seaports  of  the 
Baltic  and  German  Ocean,  and  even  in  Spain.  It  main- 
tained also  a  considerable  navy,  held  diets,  and  carried  on 
wars.  After  a  long  struggle  with  Cologne,  Lubec  was 
recognized  as  the  chief  city  of  the  Union.  The  overland 
trade  between  the  east  and  west,  as  well  as  between  the 
north  of  Europe  and  Italy  (from  Dantzic  and  Kiev  to 
Venice),  was  in  the  hands  of  the  Viennese,  Ratisboners, 
Nurnburgers,  and  Augsburgers  ;  but  a  considerable  inter- 
change of  commodities  between  the  north  (Prussian  and 
Slavish  provinces),  and  South  (Constantinople  and  Venice), 
was  effected  through  the  agency  of  Breslau  merchants. 
Towards  the  end  of  the  mediaeval  period,  the  fairs  held  D 
at  Frankfort-on-the-Maine  were  in  general  repute.  The 
principal  emporium  of  the  French  overland  trade  was  at 
first  Troyes,  and  at  a  later  period  (1445)  Lyons. 


CHRONOLOGICAL  TABLE. 


THE  MIDDLE  AGES. 


FIRST  PERIOD. — From  the  fall  of  the  western  empire  to  the  accession 
of  the  Carlovingians  and  Abbasides,  476 — 750. 

A.  D. 

476—493.  THE  Italian  empire  of  Odoacer. 

486.   End  of  the  Roman  supremacy  in  Gaul.     Syagrius  defeated 

by  Clovis  near  Soissons. 
493—555.  Empire  of  the  Ostrogoths  in  Italy. 
496.   Battle  of  Ziilpich. 

507.   Southern  France  wrested  from  the  Visigoths  by  Clovis. 
527—565.  Justinian  I.     Legislation.   Nika.   Architectural  works. 
531—712.  Elective  Visigothic  monarchy  in  Spain. 

533.  Kingdoms  of  Thuringia  and  Burgundy  united  to  Spain. 

534.  Empire  of  the  Vandals  overthrown  by  Belisarius. 
635—555.  War  between  the  Ostrogoths  (under  Totilas  and  Tejas) 

and  the  Byzantines  (under  Belisarius  and  Narses).     Rome 

taken  five  times. 

555 — 568.  The  whole  of  Italy  subject  to  the  Byzantine  government. 
558—561.  The  Frankish  monarchy  re-united  under  Chlotar  I. 
568 — 774.  Kingdom  of  the  Lombards  in  Upper  and  Central  Italy, 

founded  by  Alboin. 

585.   Union  of  the  empire  of  the  Suevi  with  that  of  the  Visigoths. 
613.   The  Frankish  monarchy  re-united  under  Chlotar  II. 
622.   Flight  of  Mohammed  from  Mecca  to  Medina. 
632.   Death  of  Mohammed. 
632—661.  Four  caliphs  of  the  race  of  Kureish,  viz.  Abu  Bekr, 

Omar,  Othman,  and  Ali.     Conquest  of  Syria,  Palestine, 

Phoenicia,  Egypt,  the  northern  coast  of  Africa,  Cyprus,  and 

Rhodes. 
661—750.  The  thirteen  Ommaijad  caliphs.    Great  extension  of  the 

Arabian  empire. 
687.   Pepin  of  Heristal  sole  Major-Domus  of  the  Frankish  empire 

(after  his  victory  at  Testri). 

711.  Victory  of  Tarik  over  the  Visigoths  at  XERES  DE  LA  FRONTERA. 

712.  The  whole  of  Spain,  except  Asturia,  in  possession  of  the 

Arabians. 
716 — 754.  Bonifacius  in  Germany. 


CHRONOLOGICAL   TABLE.  159 

A.  D. 

732.  Charles  Martel  defeats  the  Arabians  between  Tours  and 

Poitiers. 
750.  Assassination  of  the  Ommaijades. 

SECOND  PERIOD. — From  tlte  accession  of  the  Carlovingians  and  Ab- 
basides  to  the  Crusades,  about  the  year  1100. 

750—1258.  The  Abbaside  caliphs. 

752—911  (987).  THE  CARLOVINGIANS 

752—758.  Pepin  the  Short.  Two  expeditions  into  Italy  for  the  pro- 
tection of  the  pope  against  the  Lombard  King  Aistulf. 

756 — 1028.  Cordova  an  independent  caliphate. 

768—814.  CHARLEMAGNE. 

771.  Charlemagne  becomes  sole  ruler  by  the  death  of  his  brother 
Carloman. 

772—804.  War  with  the  Saxons. 

773 — 774.  Conquest  of  the  Lombardic  kingdom. 

778.  War  in  Spain.  Defeat  of  the  Mohammedan  governors  on 
this  side  the  Ebro.  Disastrous  retreat. 

787 — 788.  Defeat  and  removal  of  Duke  Tassilo  of  Bavaria. 

791 — 799.  War  with  the  Avares.  Extension  of  the  empire  to  the 
banks  of  the  Theiss.  Subjugation  of  the  Slavish  tribes  on 
the  eastern  frontier  of  the  empire. 

800.   Charlemagne  receives  the  imperial  crown. 

814 — 840.  LEWIS  THE  Pious.  Partition  of  the  empire  among  his 
three  sons.  Birth  of  Charles  the  Bald,  and  consequent  re- 
division  of  the  empire.  The  elder  sons  make  war  on  their 
father.  Plans  for  a  further  division. 

827—1016.  Monarchy  of  the  West-Saxon  kings  in  England. 

840—1370.  The  Piasts  in  Poland. 

840 — 843.  Lewis  the  German  and  Charles  the  Bald  make  war  on 
their  brother  Lothar. 

843.  Partition  of  the  Prankish  empire  by  the  CONVENTION  OP 
VERDUN. 

864—1598.  The  Rurik  dynasty  in  Russia. 

867—1056.  Macedonian  emperors  at  Constantinople. 

871—901.  Alfred  the  Great. 

885—887.  The  Prankish  monarchy  re-united  under  Charles  the 
Fat,  by  the  exclusion  of  Charles  the  Simple. 

887.  Charles  the  Fat  deposed.  Final  division  of  the  Frankish 
empire  into  five  portions. 

887—987.  THE  LAST  CARLOVINGIANS  IN  FRANCE. 

887.  ARNULF  OF  CARINTHIA.  Defeat  of  the  Normans  near  Louvain. 
Arnulf  forms  an  alliance  with  the  Magyars  against  Zwenti- 
bald,  king  of  the  Moravians. 

888 — 962.  Italy  under  native  sovereigns. 

889—1301.  The  Arpads  in  Hungary. 

About  900.  Four  Scandinavian  kingdoms. 

900 — 911.  LEWIS  THE  CHILD.  Germany  invaded  by  the  Hungari- 
ans. 

911 — 918.  CONRAD  OF  FRANCONIA.  His  authority  disputed  by  the 
nobles.  Lorraine  annexed  to  France.  Irruptions  of  the 
Hungarians. 


160  CHRONOLOGICAL    TABLE. 

A.  D. 

919—1024.  SAXON  EMPERORS. 

919 — 936.  HENRY  I.  The  empire  re-united.  Lorraine  restored  to 
Germany.  Nine  years'  truce  with  the  Hungarians.  Mili- 
tary improvements.  Subjugation  of  Bohemia  and  the 
Wendish  tribes  as  far  as  the  Oder.  Defeat  of  the  Hun- 
garians (at  Merseburg).  The  northern  frontier  of  the 
empire  extended  to  the  (so-called)  Danawirk. 

936 — 973.  OTHO  (I.)  THE  GREAT.  Insurrection  of  the  dukes.  Ex- 
pedition to  Jutland. 

951.  First  Italian  campaign.  Berengar  a  vassal  of  the  German 
crown. 

955.  Final  defeat  of  the  Hungarians  on  the  banks  of  the  Lech. 
The  Sclavonians  subdued. 

962.  Second  Italian  campaign.  Otho  crowned  at  Rome.  Berengar 
taken  prisoner. 

966—972.  Third  Italian  campaign.  War  with  the  Greeks  in  Lower 
Italy. 

973—983.  Otho  II.  War  with  Lothar  of  France  for  the  possession 
of  Lorraine.  Otho  defeated  in  Lower  Italy.  His  death. 

983—1002.  Otho  III.  Rebellion  of  Henry,  duke  of  Bavaria. 
Otho  crowned  at  Rome. 

987—1328.  THE  CAPETS  IN  FRANCE. 

1002—1024.  HENRY  II.  Wars  with  the  Italians,  Poles,  and  Bo- 
hemians. 

1002.   Massacre  of  all  the  Danes  in  England. 

1016—1042.  The  Danes  conquer  all  England.     Canute. 

1024—1125.  FRANCONIAN  EMPERORS. 

1024 — 1039.  CONRAD  II.  Burgundy  annexed  to  the  German  crown. 
The  March  of  Schleswig  ceded  to  Canute.  A  law  passed 
rendering  the  smaller  fiefs  hereditary. 

1039—1056.  Henry  III.  Greatest  extension  of  the  empire.  The 
"Treuga  Dei,"  or  God's  truce. 

1042—1066.  Restoration  of  the  Anglo-Saxon  kings  in  England. 

1056— 1106.  HENRY  IV.  Regency  of  the  Empress  Agnes.  Influ- 
ence of  the  Archbishops  of  Cologne  and  Bremen. 

1057 — 1185.  The  Byzantine  empire  under  the  Comneni  and  Dukas. 

1066—1154.  Norman  kings  in  England. 

1073 — 1075.  The  Saxons  renounce  their  allegiance. 

1073—1085.  Disputes  between  Henry  and  Pope  Gregory  VII.  re- 
specting the  right  of  investiture. 

1077.   Henry  visits  the  pope  at  Canossa. 

1087.   The  Arabian  empire  in  Spain  united  to  Morocco. 

1094.  The  county  of  Portugal,  at  first  a  Castilian  fief,  afterwards 
independent. 


THIRD  PERIOD. 

1096 — 1273.  AGE  OF  THE  CRUSADES. 

1096— 1100.  THE  FIRST  CRUSADE.     Peter  of  Amiens.     Councils  of 

Piacenza  and  Clermont.  Storming  of  Nicaea  and  Antiochia. 

Edessa  and  Antiochia  Christian  principalities. 


CHRONOLOGICAL    TABLE.  161 

A.  D. 

1099.  THE   CRUSADERS   TAKE   JERUSALEM.     Godfrey  de  Bouillon 

elected  king.     Battle  of  Antioch. 
1099 — 1187.  KINGDOM  OF  JERUSALEM. 

1100.  Death  of  Godfrey  de  Bouillon. 
1106—1125.  HENRY  V. 

1122.  The  dispute  respecting  investiture  terminated  by  the  Con- 
cordat of  Worms. 

1125—1137.  LOTHAR  THE  SAXON.  Bavaria  and  Saxony  united 
under  the  house  of  Guelph.  Struggles  with  the  Hohen- 
staufen. 

1130—1194.  The  sovereignty  of  the  Two  Sicilies  in  the  hands  of 
the  Normans. 

1138—1254.  THE  HOHENSTAUFEN. 

1138—1152.  Conrad  III.  Henry  the  Proud  deprived  of  both  his 
dukedoms.  Siege  of  Weinsberg. 

1147—1149.  THE  SECOND  CRUSADE.  Edessa  taken  by  the  Turks. 
Unsuccessful  campaign  of  Conrad  III.  and  Louis  VII.  in 
Palestine. 

1152 — 1190.  FREDERICK  (I.)  BARBAROSSA.  His  first  Italian  cam- 
paign. Destruction  of  three  of  the  Lombard  cities.  Ex- 
ecution of  Arnold  of  Brescia.  Bavaria  restored  to  Henry 
the  Lion. 

1154 — 1399.  England  under  the  house  of  Plantagenet. 

1158 — 1162.  Frederick's  second  Italian  campaign.  The  Milanese 
humbled.  Diet  on  the  Roncalian  plain.  Milan  destroyed. 

1166 — 1168.  Frederick  again  visits  Italy  for  the  purpose  of  placing 
Paschal  III.  on  the  papal  throne.  Returns  without  his 
army.  Alexandria  built. 

1174—1178.  Fifth  Italian  campaign.    Defection  of  Henry  the  Lion. 

1176.   Frederick  defeated  at  Legnano. 

1183.  Peace  concluded  at  Constance  between  Frederick  and  the 
Lombards.  Henry  the  Lion  placed  under  the  ban  of  the 
empire,  and  his  estates  divided. 

1186.  Sixth  Italian  campaign.  Frederick's  son  Henry  marries  Con- 

stance, heiress  of  Apulia  and  Sicily. 
1185—1204.  The  Byzantine  empire  under  the  house  of  Angelus. 

1187.  Defeat  of  the  Christians  at  Hittin.    Jerusalem  re-taken  by 

the  Turks. 
1189—1193.  THIRD   CRUSADE.     Death   of  Frederick    Barbarossa. 

The  Teutonic  order  instituted  in  the  camp  before  Acre. 

Misunderstanding  between  Philip  II.  and  Richard  Coeur 

de  Lion.     Truce  with  Saladin.     The  kingdom  of  Cyprus. 

Captivity  of  Richard. 

1190—1197.  HENRY  VI.     His  cruelties  in  Apulia  and  Sicily-. 
1194—1266.  Kingdom  of  the  Two  Sicilies  under  the  Hohenstaufen. 
1198—1208.  PHILIP  OF  SWABIA  AND  OTHO  IV.     Ten  years'  dispute 

terminated  by  the   assassination  of  Philip,  by  Otho  of 

Wittelsbach. 
1203—1204.  THE  FOURTH  (so-called)  CRUSADE.  The  Crusaders  visit 

Constantinople  for  the  purpose  of  replacing  the  Emperor 

Isaac  on  the  throne.     They  quarrel  with  the   emperor. 

Constantinople  taken. 


162  CHRONOLOGICAL    TABLE. 

A.  D. 

1204 — 1261.  THE  LATIN  EMPIRE.  Division  of  the  empire.  Sove- 
reignties of  Nicaea  and  Trebizond. 

1206.  Temudschin  becomes  Tschingis-Khan.  Religious  wars  in 
the  south  of  France.  The  Cathari  and  Waldenses. 

1208 — 1215.  OTHO  IV.  sole  emperor.     He  quarrels  with  the  pope. 

1212   The  Childrens'  Crusade. 

1215.   Magna  Charta  Libertatum  in  England. 

1215 — 1250.  FREDERICK  II.  His  disputes  with  the  pope  respecting 
the  union  of  the  German  and  Sicilian  crowns,  and  the 
crusade. 

1224.  Victory  of  the  Mongols  on  the  Kalka. 

1228.  CRUSADE  OF  FREDERICK  II.  Treaty  with  Sultan  Camel. 
Jerusalem  restored  to  the  Christians. 

1230 — 1283.  War  between  the  Teutonic  order  and  the  Prussians. 

1237.  Frederick  defeats  the  Lombards  at  Cortenuova.  Second 
irruption  of  the  Mongols.  Russia  subject  to  them  for  more 
than  200  years. 

1241.  Victory  of  the  Mongols  at  Wahlstatt.  They  invade  Hungary. 
Henry  of  Thuringia  elected  emperor  in  opposition  to  Frede- 
rick. He  dies  at  the  end  of  a  year.  Election  of  William 
of  Holland. 

1248.   THE  SIXTH  CRUSADE.     Louis  IX.  in  Egypt. 

1250—1256.  CONRAD  IV.  (f  1254)  and  William  of  Holland  rival 
emperors. 

1256—1273.  The  INTERREGNUM  in  Germany.  Richard  of  Cornwall 
and  Alfonso  of  Castille. 

1258.   END  OF  THE  ARABIAN  CALIPHATE  IN  BAGDAD. 

1266.  Charles  of  Anjou  defeats  Manfred  near  Benevento.  Con- 
quers Italy  and  Sicily. 

1268.   Conradin  defeated  near  Scurcola,  and  executed  at  Naples. 

1270.   THE  SEVENTH  CRUSADE.    Lewis  IX.  dies  before  Tunis. 


FOURTH   PERIOD. 

1273 — 1492.  FROM  THE  END  OF  THE  CRUSADES  TO  THE  DISCOVERY 
OF  AMERICA. 

1273—1291.  RUDOLF  OF  HABSBURG.  War  with  Ottocar  of  Bohe- 
mia. The  house  of  Habsburg  acquires  Austria,  Styria, 
and  Carinthia. 

1282.   Sicilian  vespers.    Expulsion  of  the  French  from  Sicily. 

1291.  The  Christians  lose  Acre,  the  last  of  their  possessions  in 
Palestine. 

1292—1298.  ADOLPHUS  OF  NASSAU.  War  with  the  sons  of  Albert 
the  Degenerate  (of  Thuringia).  Adolphus  slain  in  the 
battle  of  Worms. 

1298—1308.  ALBERT  I.  OF  AUSTRIA. 

1305.   The  papal  see  transferred  to  Avignon. 

1307.  THE  Swiss  CONFEDERATION. 

1308.  Albert  assassinated  by  his  nephew. 

1308 — 1313.  HENRY  VII.  OF  LUXEMBURG.  Bohemia  re-annexed 
to  the  German  crown. 


CHRONOLOGICAL    TABLE.  163 

A.  D. 

1309.  Head-quarters  of  the  Teutonic  order  transferred  to  Marien- 
burg. 

1312.   Extermination  of  the  Knights  Templars  in  France. 

1313 — 1347.  )  LEWIS  IY.  THE  BAVARIAN,  with  FREDERICK  OF 
1330.  $  AUSTRIA. 

1315.   Leopold  of  Austria  defeated  by  the  Swiss  at  Morgarten. 

1322.  Battle  of  Miihldorf.  Frederick  taken  prisoner.  Lewis  and 
Frederick  reign  conjointly.  Lewis  quarrels  with  Pope 
John  XXII. 

1328 — 1498.  ELDER  LINE  OF  THE  HOUSE  OF  YALOIS  IN  FRANCE. 

1338.  The  electoral  diet  at  Rhense  declares  the  emperor  indepen- 
dent of  the  pope. 

1339 — 1453.  War  between  England  and  France  in  consequence  of 
the  claims  of  the  King  of  England  to  the  French  throne. 
The  English  victorious  at  Sluys,  Crecy,  Maupertuis,  and 
Agincourt.  Charles  of  Bohemia  elected  king  in  opposition 
to  Louis;  and  (after  the  death  of  Louis)  Count  Giinther 
of  Schwarzburg  in  opposition  to  Charles. 

1347 — 1437.  GERMAN  KINGS  OF  THE  HOUSE  OF  BOHEMIA. — LUXEM- 
BURG. 

1347—1378.  CHARLES  IV. 

1348.   FIRST  GERMAN  UNIVERSITY  FOUNDED  AT  PRAGUE. 

1356.    THE  GOLDEN  BULL. 

1378 — 1400.  WENCESLAUS.  Repeated  attempts  to  establish  a  uni- 
versal peace  throughout  Germany. 

1397.   The  union  of  Calmar. 

1399—1461.  The  house  of  Lancaster  in  England. 

1400 — 1410.  RUPERT  OF  THE  PALATINATE. — Unsuccessful  expedi- 
tion against  "Wenceslaus. 

1414 — 1418.  COUNCIL  OF  CONSTANCE.  Termination  of  the  papal 
schism.  Four  concordats  instead  of  a  real  reform  in  the 
Church.  Martyrdom  of  John  Huss  and  Jerome  of  Prague. 

1417.  The  March  of  Brandenburg  granted  as  a  fief  to  the  Bur- 
grave.  Frederick  of  Niirnberg,  of  the  house  of  HOHENZOL- 

LERN. 

1419—1436.  THE  HUSSITE  WAR.  John  Ziska  (f  1424).  Five  un- 
successful campaigns  of  the  imperial  army  against  the 
insurgents  in  Bohemia.  The  war  terminated  by  a  conven- 
tion between  the  insurgents  and  the  council  of  Basle. 

1429 — 1431.  JOAN  OF  ARC,  THE  MAID  OF  ORLEANS. 

1438 — 1806.  EMPERORS  OF  THE  HOUSE  OF  AUSTRIA. 

1438—1439.  ALBERT  II.  Unfortunate  expedition  against  the  Turks. 

1440—1493.  FREDERICK  II. 

1453.    CONSTANTINOPLE  TAKEN  BY  THE  TURKS. 

1459 — 1485.  "War  of  the  red  and  white  roses  in  England. 

1461—1485.  England  under  the  house  of  York. 

1466.  West-Prussia  incorporated  with  Poland.  East-Prussia  a 
Polish  fief. 

1476.  Charles  the  Bold  of  Burgundy  defeated  at  Murten  and 

Granson. 

1477.  Charles  of  Burgundy  slain  at  Nancy.    Austria  acquires  the 

Netherlands  and  Burgundy  by  the  marriage  of  Maximilian 

with  Mary  of  Burgundy. 
1486.   Diaz  discovers  the  Cape  of  Good  Hope. 
1492.   COLUMBUS  DISCOVERS  AMERICA. 


QUESTIONS. 


§  1.  Geography  of  Germany  in  the  First  Century  after  Christ. 

[1]    IN  what  part  of  Germany  were  the  principal  Roman  settle- 

A    ments  at  the  commencement  of  the  first  century  1     By  what 

works  were  these  settlements  protected  1    To  whom  did  the 

territory  southward  and  westward  of  this  frontier  belong  1  In- 

B    to  how  many  provinces  was  it  divided,  and  what  were  their 

names  ?     By  what  people  was  the  rest  of  Germany  inhabited  ? 

[2]       By  what  Roman  writers  is  the  soil  of  Germany  described  1 

"What  account  do  they  give  of  it  7    What  forest  is  particularly 

mentioned,  and  what  was  its  extent  7    How  was  the  climate 

A    affected  by  these  peculiarities  of  the  soil  1    What  animals 

were  produced  in  Germany]    Describe  the  vegetable  and 

mineral  productions  of  the  soil. 

[3]       Into  how  many  nations  were  the  Germans  divided  at  this 
B    period  1    Name  the  first  of  these  divisions,  and  the  various 
tribes  of  which  it  was  composed,  with  their  respective  posi- 
tions. 

[4]       Name  the  second  division  with  its  tribes. 
[5]       Name  the  third  division.     To  what  nations  is  this  general 
c    term  applied  by  Tacitus  1    How  many  of  these  tribes  are  es- 
pecially mentioned  by  the  historian  1     Why  are  they  thus 
particularized  1     Name  and  describe  each  of  them.     Of  how 
many  smaller  tribes  was  the  second  of  these  composed  1  What 
D    deity  did  they  worship  1    Name  the  other  tribes  belonging 
to  the  same  stock,  but  not  especially  mentioned  by  the  histo- 
rian.    What  circumstances  indicate  the  common  descent  of 
all  these  tribes  from  a  distinct  and  unmixed  race  1 

<)  2.  Religion,  Manners,  and  Customs  in  the  First  Century  of 
the  Christian  jEra. 

[6J       Under  what  names  was  the  Supreme  Being  worshipped  by 

A    the  Germans  1    Where  were  sacrifices  offered  to  these  deities, 

and  from  what  occurrences  were  auguries  derived  1    What 

was  their  idea  of  a  future  state  1    Describe  the  peculiarities 

of  a  German  chief's  funeral. 

[7]  What  distinction  existed  between  freemen  and  serfs  7  At 
B  what  seasons  did  their  great  national  councils  assemble,  and 
for  what  purposes  ?  How  were  the  assent  and  disapprobation 
of  the  assembly  expressed?  To  what  privileges  were  their 
young  men  admitted  at  these  assemblies  1  From  what  classes 
were  their  princes  and  dukes  chosen'?  What  was  the  extent 
of  their  authority  ? 


8 14.]  QUESTIONS.  165 

[8]       Describe  their  arms  offensive  and  defensive.     In  what  fig- 
c    ure  was  their  order  of  battle  formed,  and  how  was  it  protected  1 
What  religious  ceremony  was  performed  before  and  during 
the  battle  1    To  whom  were  they  frequently  indebted  for  vic- 
tory after  the  failure  of  their  first  attack  1 

[9]       Describe  the  habitations  of  the  ancient  Germans.    Explain 

D    the  terms  mark,  zent,  and  gau.    Describe  the  ordinary  sum- 

A    mer  and  winter  dress  of  men  and  women.    What  were  the 

two  chief  employments  of  their  lives  1    By  whom  was  the  soil 

cultivated  1    How  did  they  pass  most  of  their  leisure  time  1 

What  subjects  were  frequently  discussed  at  their    feasts  1 

B    What  were  the  distinguishing  virtues  of  the  Germans  1     In 

what   manner  was    atonement   made  for  violations  of  the 

law  1 

§  3.     History  of  the  Germans  to  the  Period  of  the  Migrations. 

[10]  To  whom  were  the  shores  of  the  Baltic  probably  known 
from  the  remotest  antiquity  1  With  what  events  do  our  first 
distinct  accounts  of  the  Germans  commence  1  Mention  some 

c  instances.  Who  were  the  most  formidable  of  these  invaders, 
and  what  Roman  post  did  they  attack  1  Describe  the  next 
migration.  Who  was  their  leader  1  By  whom  and  at  what 

D  place  was  he  defeated  1  What  nations  were  subdued  by  Cae- 
sar'? By  whom  was  the  subjugation  of  Gaul  completed'? 

A  What  decisive  victory  did  he  gain  1  What  emperor  formed 
a  body-guard  of  Germans  1  What  nations  were  subdued  by 
his  step-sons  1  What  measures  were  adopted  by  Drusus  for 

B    the  subjugation  of  the  Low  German  tribes  1    How  far  did  he 

advance  1    Name  the  two  first  unions  of  German  tribes. 
[11]     By  whom  was  the  war  in  Germany  continued  after  the 
death  of  Drusus  1    What  empire  did  he  threaten,  and  of  what 
tribes  was  it  composed  1    By  whom  was  this  empire  founded  1 

c  What  occurrence  put  an  end  to  the  war  1  What  was  the  po- 
sition of  the  Romans  in  Germany  at  this  period  1  What  cir- 
cumstances occasioned  a  confederation  of  the  Low  German 
tribes?  Who  was  the  Roman  governor,  and  what  was  his 

D  conduct  1  By  whom  was  he  resisted  1  Where  were  the  Ro- 
mans attacked,  and  what  was  the  result  of  the  battle'?  What 
measures  were  adopted  by  Augustus  in  consequence  of  this 

A  disaster  1  By  whom  was  the  slaughter  of  the  Roman  legions 
avenged  1  In  what  battle  ?  What  prevented  the  re-establish- 
ment of  Roman  supremacy  in  Germany  1 

[12]     What  German  tribes  renounced  their  allegiance  to  Marbod 

B  at  this  period  1  By  whom  were  their  places  supplied  1  What 
was  the  result  of  these  secessions  1  What  became  of  Marbod  1 
What  was  the  fate  of  Herman1?  [Arminius.] 

[13]     After  the  dissolution  of  these  confederacies,  what  was  the 

c  result  of  the  Roman  policy  in  Germany  1  Were  not  some 
attempts  made  to  throw  off  the  Roman  yoke  1  With  what 
success  1 

[14]     On  what  occasion  do  we  first  hear  of  the  Vandals  and 

D    Alans  7    By  whom  were  several  campaigns  undertaken  against 


166  QUESTIONS    TO    HANDBOOK  [15 23. 

A    these  barbarians,  and  where  did  he  die  1    By  whom  and  on 

what  conditions  was  peace  granted  to  several  German  tribes  1 

[15]     Of  what  tribes  was  the  confederacy  in  Western  Germany 

B    composed  1 
[16]     How  many  confederacies   existed   in  Eastern   Germany'? 

c  To  what  circumstances  may  the  origin  of  these  confederacies 
be  traced  1  In  what  countries  did  the  Goths  first  appear,  and 
where  did  they  carry  on  their  warfare  1  Who  re-established 

D  the  frontier  wall  between  the  Rhine  and  Danube  1  What 
transplantation  of  German  tribes  took  place  at  the  same  time  1 
Trace  the  progress  of  the  Alemanni  and  Franks.  How  were 

A  these  encroachments  met  by  the  Romans  1  By  what  general 
and  where  were  the  Alemanni  defeated  1  By  whom  were 
they  finally  expelled  from  Gaul? 

§  4.     Destruction  of  the  Gothic  empire  by  the  Huns. 

[17]     What  portions  of  Europe  were  occupied  by  the  Ostrogoths 
D    and  Visigoths  in  the  fourth  century  ?    By  whom  were  they 

governed  ? 

[18]     What   German  tribe  first  embraced  Christianity?    Was 
c    their  belief  orthodox  or  heretical  1    At  what  council  was  a 
Gothic  bishop  present?     Who  was  his  successor  and  what 
book  did  he  translate  into  the  Gothic  language  1 
[19]      What  quarter  of  the  globe  did  the  Huns  originally  inhabit  1 
To  what  empire  had  they  rendered  themselves  formidable  1 
D    What  barrier  was  erected  against  their  encroachments  1    Into 
how  many  kingdoms  was  the  Hunnish  empire  divided  at  a 
later  period  ?    By  whom  was  their  Northern  kingdom  over- 
thrown 1    By  what  tribe  were  they  encountered  between  the 
Volga  and  the  Don  ?     What  was  the  result  of  the  contest  be- 
tween the  Huns  and  Goths  1 

[19J     Where  were  the  Visigoths  permitted  to  settle  1    What  in- 
A    duced  them  to  revolt?    What  auxiliaries  did  they  call  in,  and 
what  was  the  result  of  their  expedition  into  Thrace  ?     What 
became  of  Valens?    By  whom  was  he  succeeded?    What 
B    terms  did  the  new  emperor  make  with  the  Goths  ?    Who 
was  chosen  king  of  the  Visigoths,   and  for  what  reason? 
What  country  did  they  invade?    By  whom  were  they  com- 
pelled to  retire  ?    What  command  was  conferred  on  Alaric  ? 

§  5.     General  immigration  of  the  Barbarians  into  the  Countries 
of  the  West. 

[20]     What  country  was  next  invaded  by  Alaric,  and  with  what 
c    success  ? 
[21]     What  German  chief  led  his  forces  into  Italy  ?    What  was 

their  fate  ? 

[22]     In  what  direction  did  the  grand  movement  take  place  from 

D    the  interior  of  Germany  ?     What  countries  were  respectively 

occupied  by  the  Burgundians,  Alani,  Vandals,  and   Suevi? 

A    What  portion  of  the  Spanish  Peninsula  remained  in  the  hands 

of  the  Romans? 
[23]     How  often  was  Rome  besieged  by  Alaric?    What  was  the 


24 29.]  OF    MEDIAEVAL    HISTORY.  167 

result  of  the  last  attack  1    How  were  the  inhabitants  pun- 

B    ished  1    Where  did  Alaric  die,  and  where  was  he  buried  1 

By  whom  was  he  succeeded  1    What  countries  did  he  invade  1 

Who  was  the  next  Gothic  sovereign  7     What  nations  did  he 

conquer  1    Where  did  he  fix  the  seat  of  government  1 

[24]     What  new  empire  was  established  by  the  Vandals'?    By 

c    whom  were  they  led  1    What  was  the  capital  of  the  Yandalic 

empire  1    What  islands  did  it  comprehend  7 
[25]     What  was  the  condition  of  the  Britons  at  this  time  1    To 
D    whom  did  they  apply  in  vain  for  protection  1    What  German 
tribes  accepted  their  invitations  1    By  whom  were  they  com- 
manded 1    What  kingdoms  did  they  establish  in  Britain'* 
What  became  of  the  original  inhabitants  ? 

§  6.     Dissolution  of  the  Hunnish  empire. 

[26]     What  became  of  the  Huns  after  the  conquest  of  the  Ostro- 
A    goths  1    Under  whose  command  did  they  again  become  for- 
B    midable  1    With  whom  did  he  share  the  throne  1    By  whom 
was  Attila  persuaded  to  invade  the  Eastern  empire  1     What 
emperor  was  defeated  by  him  ?     Under  what  circumstances 
was  the  siege  of  Constantinople  raised  1    Where  and  by  what 
c    generals  was  Attila  defeated  1     By  what  peculiarity  was  this 
battle  distinguished  ?    For  what  reason,  and  with  what  suc- 
cess, did  Attila  invade  Italy  7     What  became  of  the  inhabit- 
D    ants  of  the  Lombard  cities  1    At  whose  instance  was  peace 
granted  to  the  Romans'?    What  happened  to  the  Hunnish 
empire  after  the  death  of  Attila  1     What  was  its  extent  in  his 
lifetime  1    By  what  nations  were  new  kingdoms  formed  1 

§7.     Dissolution  of  the  Western  Roman  empire. 

[27]     By  what  circumstances  was  the  progress  of  the  Germanic 

A    tribes  favored'?     By  whom  was  the  capital  of  the  Western 

empire  plundered  1    Over  what  countries  did  the  Visigoths 

extend  their  empire?     What  tribes  spread  over  Gaul  1    By 

whom  were  the  attempts  of  the  Romans  to  reconquer  Africa 

B    rendered  abortive  1    Who  was  Odoacer  1    What  sovereign  did 

he  depose,  and  by  whom  was  he  proclaimed  King  of  Italy  1 

By  whom  was  the  last  Roman  governor  compelled  to  evacuate 

Gaul? 

§  8.     Empires  in  Italy. 

[28]     By  whom  was  the  Italian  empire  established  in  476 1  Who 

A    was  Theodoric,  and  what  plan  did  he  propose  to  the  emperor 

Zeno  1    What  religion  did  he  profess  1    What  victories  did 

he  gain,  and  what  Italian  city  did  he  besiege  and  take  1    What 

B    was  the  fate  of  Odoacer  %    By  what  surname  is  Theodoric 

generally  distinguished  1 

[29]     By  whom  was  he  recognized  as  king  of  Italy  ?    Over  what 

countries  did  he  extend  his  empire  ?    Where  did  he  establish 

the   imperial  residence'?    By  what  name   is  he  commonly 

c    known  in  Germany  7   To  what  circumstances  do  you  attribute 

A    the   prosperity  of  Italy  during   his   reign?    Among  what 

princes  did  he  succeed  in  maintaining  peace  1     Which  of  the 


168  QUESTIONS    TO    HANDBOOK  [30 34. 

German  sovereigns  opposed  his  plans  7     To  whom  was  the 
Visigothic  throne  secured  1    What  circumstances  occasioned 

B  the  death  of  Theodoric  1  By  whom  was  he  succeeded  7  In 
whose  name  did  she  govern  1  What  was  her  fate  1  Under 
what  pretence  did  Justinian  revive  the  claims  of  the  Eastern 
emperor  to  the  throne  of  Italy  7  What  was  the  result  of  this 
demand  1  What  was  the  name  of  the  Byzantine  general,  and 
what  advantages  were  gained  by  him  7  How  were  these  ad- 

c  vantages  lost  7  Under  what  leader  were  the  Goths  victorious  7 
What  German  tribes  fought  as  mercenaries  against  their 
countrymen,  and  under  what  leader  7  What  was  the  fate  of 
Totila7  What  became  of  one  portion  of  the  Goths  7  By 

D  whom  were  the  remainder  overthrown  7  What  form  of  gov- 
ernment was  now  established  in  Italy  7 

[30]  By  whom  were  the  Romans  compelled  to  relinquish  their 
sovereignty  over  the  whole  of  Italy  7  How  long  had  they 

A    exercised  this  authority  7    To  what  territories  were  they  now 

restricted  7 

[31]  What  nation  was  subdued  by  the  Langobardi  on  their  return 
from  Italy  7  By  whom  were  they  commanded  7  By  what 
nation  were  they  assisted  7  What  portion  of  Italy  did  they 
wrest  from  the  Byzantines  7  What  name  was  given  to  this 

B  portion  7  What  city  was  made  the  capital  of  this  new  king- 
dom 7  What  was  the  fate  of  Alboin  7  By  whom  was  he  suc- 
ceeded 7  What  was  the  extent  of  the  Lombard  empire  during 
his  reign  7  What  was  his  fate,  and  what  form  of  government 

c  was  established  after  his  death  7  Who  was  chosen  king  when 
the  restoration  of  monarchy  was  found  necessary  7  By  whom 
were  many  of  the  Lombards  converted  to  the  orthodox  faith  7 

D  Within  what  limits  was  the  exarchate  confined  by  succeeding 
Lombard  kings  7  By  whom  were  the  Lombards  compelled 
to  cede  a  portion  of  the  coast  of  the  Adriatic  to  the  pope  7 

A  What  was  the  effect  of  this  concession  7  What  circumstance 
occasioned  the  incorporation  of  the  Langobardic  empire  into 
that  of  the  Franks  7 

$  9.    Empire  of  the  Vandals  in  Africa. 
[32]     What  was  the  extent  of  the  empire  in  Africa  7    What 

islands  in  the  Mediterranean  did  it  also  comprehend  7 
[33]     By  whom  was  Geiseric  [Genseric]  invited  into  Italy  7  What 
B    was  the  result  of  this  invasion  7    What  became  of  Eudoxia  7 
What  measures  were  adopted  for  clearing  the  Mediterranean 
c    of  Vandal  pirates  7     What  was  the  result  7    By  what  circum- 
stances was  the  decline  of  the  Vandal  empire  accelerated  7 
In  what  manner  did  Justinian  avail  himself  of  this  position 
D    of  affairs  7    What  sovereign  occupied  the  Vandal  throne  at 
this  time  7    What  was  the  issue  of  the  attack  on  Carthage, 
A    and  by  what  important  consequences  was  it  followed  7   What 
became  of  Gelimer  and  his  Vandal  soldiers  7 

§  10.     Empire  of  the  Suevi  in  Spain. 

[34]  By  what  nation  had  Boetica  been  occupied  since  the  de- 
parture of  the  Vandals  7  Who  was  their  first  Christian  sove- 


35 40.]  OF    MEDIEVAL    HISTORY.  169 

reign?     By  whom,  and  for  what  reason,  was  he  attacked! 

B    "What  was  his  fate  1    By  whom  was  a  new  Suevic  kingdom 

established,  and  into  what  empire  was  it  finally  incorporated  1 

§11.  Empire  of  the  Visigoths. 

[35]      What  was  the  extent  of  the  Visigothic  empire  in  Gaul1? 

c     What  portion  remained  in  their  hands  after  the  battle  of 

D    Vougte  1    Describe  their  possessions  in  Spain  at  different  pe- 
riods.    What  African  territory  belonged  to  them? 
[36]      Who  was  the  founder  of  the  Yisigothic  empire,  and  by 

A  whom  was  he  succeeded  ?  What  conquests  were  achieved  by 
this  sovereign,  and  what  was  his  fate  ?  What  nations  were 
subdued  by  Theodoric  II.  and  Euric?  Who  succeeded  Euric 
on  the  throj^e  ?  With  whom  did  the  Visigothic  Catholics 
form  an  alliance  1  Under  what  pretence  did  he  attack  Alaric 
II.?  Where  was  the  battle  fought,  and  with  what  result? 
What  was  the  fate  of  Alaric  ?  What  portion  of  their  posses- 

B  sions  in  Gaul  were  the  Visigoths  allowed  to  retain  ?  In  whose 
reign,  and  for  how  long  a  period,  were  the  Visigothic  and  Os- 
trogothic  empires  united  ?  To  what  place  was  the  imperial 
residence  transferred  after  the  death  of  Amalric  ?  By  whom, 
and  under  what  circumstances,  was  he  slain  ? 
[37]  By  what  people  was  the  Visigothic  empire  still  further  cir- 

c    cumscribed  ?     By  whose  invitation  did  they  invade  the  coun- 
try ?     What  tribes  were  reduced  to  submission  by  Leuwigild  ? 
[38]      To  what  object  was  the  attention  of  the  Visigothic  kings 

D  directed  after  the  expulsion  of  the  Greeks  from  Spain  ?  What 
foreign  conquest  was  achieved  during  this  period  ?  By  whom, 
and  under  what  circumstances,  were  the  Arabians  invited 
over  from  Africa  ?  By  whom  was  their  army  commanded  ? 

A  Who  was  king  of  the  Goths  at  this  time,  and  where  did  he 
encounter  the  invaders  ?  How  long  did  the  battle  last,  and 
what  was  the  result  ?  By  whom  were  the  Moorish  generals 
recalled?  What  division  of  the  Pyrenaean  peninsula  took 
place  after  their  departure  ?  By  whom  was  Arabian  Spain 
governed,  and  until  what  period  ? 

§  12.  Empire  of  the  Burgundians  in  Gaul. 

[39]  What  name  was  probably  given  by  Tacitus  to  the  Burgun- 
B  dians  ?  In  what  part  of  Europe  did  they  first  appear  in  the 

first  century  ?  What  disaster  compelled  them  to  retire  west- 
o  wards  ?  Where  did  they  next  settle  ?  What  was  their  form 

of  government  ?   For  what  reasons  were  their  kings  set  aside  ? 

By  whom,  and  under  what  circumstances,  was  their  kingdom 
D  conquered  and  divided  ?  What  privileges  were  the  Burgun- 

dians  permitted  to  retain  ? 

§  13.  Empire  of  the  Franks  under  the  Merovingians. 

[40]  How  did  the  Franks  obtain  settlements  in  Gaul  ?  Into  how 
A  many  principal  branches  were  they  divided  ?  By  what  mon- 
B  arch  was  the  Roman  supremacy  in  Gaul  destroyed  ?  What 

8 


170  QUESTIONS   TO   HANDBOOK  [41 45. 

people  did  he  subdue  7    By  whom  was  he  assisted  1    Why 
did  he  embrace  the  Catholic  religion  1     By  whom  was  he 

c  crowned  1  What  nations  were  reduced  by  him  to  the  condi- 
tion of  tributaries  1  Did  they  ever  recover  their  independ- 
ence 1  Under  what  pretence  did  he  attack  the  Visigoths  1 
"Where  was  the  battle  fought,  and  what  was  the  result  1  To 

D  what  city  did  he  now  transfer  his  residence  1  By  whom  were 
the  Frankish  clans  united  into  one  kingdom]  By  what 
means  was  this  arrangement  facilitated  1  Into  how  many 
portions  was  the  Frankish  empire  divided  after  the  death  of 
Clovis  1  By  whom  were  these  new  kingdoms  governed,  and 
where  did  they  respectively  fix  their  residences  1  What  con- 
quest was  achieved  by  the  king  of  Metz  1  With  whom  did 

A  he  share  the  Burgundian  territory  1  By  what  accession  of 
territory  was  the  empire  of  the  Franks  further  augmented  1 
What  privilege  were  the  Bavarians  permitted  to  retain  1 
[41]  Under  what  sovereign  was  the  Frankish  empire  reunited  1 
Into  how  many  portions  was  it  divided  after  his  death  1  How 
long  did  this  arrangement  continue  1  What  was  the  next  di- 

B    vision  1    Describe  these  kingdoms,  and  give  the  names  of 

c    their  respective  capitals. 
[42]     What  city  continued  to  be  the  common  capital  of  the  three 

kingdoms  1 

[43]     What  was  the  character  of  Clothaire's  successors'?    By 
whose  misconduct  were  these  calamities  chiefly  occasioned  ? 

D    Under  what  sovereign  was  the  empire  a  second  time  united  1 
What  change  took  place  in  the  administration  of  the  Frank- 
ish empire  during  the  reign  of  Clothaire  II.  1 
[44]     How  many  of  these  officers  were  there,  and  what  district 

A  was  assigned  to  each  1  What  were  their  duties  ]  By  whom 
was  the  Frankish  monarchy  united  for  the  third  time  1  Who 
became  major  domus  of  the  whole  empire  1  What  nation 
soon  separated  itself  from  the  empire  1  What  was  the  char- 
acter of  the  Frankish  kings,  and  what  authority  was  exer- 
cised by  the  majores  domus  during  this  period  1  On  whom 
was  the  title  of  duke  and  prince  of  the  Franks  conferred  1 

B  After  what  victory  1  By  whom  was  the  successor  to  the  office 
of  major  domus  disputed  after  his  death  1  In  whose  favor 
was  the  dispute  finally  decided  1  What  conquests  were 

c  achieved  by  him  1  By  whom  was  the  Merovingian  dynasty 
supplanted  1  How  had  he  conciliated  the  clergy  1 

§  14.  Religion,  Manners,  and  Customs  of  the  West,  particularly 

of  the  Prankish  empire. 
[45]     By  what  German  tribes  were  Arianism  and  Catholicism  re- 

D    spectively  adopted  7    What  tribes  were  afterwards  persuaded 

A  to  renounce  Arianism  1  What  was  the  religion  of  the  Ger- 
mans at  the  commencement  of  this  period  1  Into  what  had 
the  pure  adoration  of  nature  which  they  originally  professed 

B  degenerated  7  Prove  this  by  an  instance.  What  nations  re- 
mained in  a  sta,te  of  heathenism  after  the  conversion  of  Clo- 
vis 1  At  what  period  did  the  Burgundians  embrace  the 

c    Catholic  religion  1    By  whom  was  the  Gospel  most  effectually 


46 51.]  OF    MEDIEVAL    HISTORY.  171 

propagated  in  Germany?  By  what  title  was  he  generally 
known  1  What  offices  did  he  fill  in  the  Church  1  What  was 
his  fate  ? 

[46]    What  was  the  origin  of  the  Christian  monastic  life  ?    Who 
i      D    was  the  chief  of  the  Egyptian  monks  1    By  whom  were  they 

A  assembled  within  the  walls  of  one  building  1  What  names 
were  given  to  this  house  1  What  was  the  title  of  their  presi- 
dent? By  whom  was  a  new  form  given  to  this  institution  in 

B  the  West?  For  what  convent  was  his  "rule"  originally 
framed  ?  What  were  its  provisions  1  What  was  the  general 
character  of  these  monks  between  the  sixth  and  ninth  centu- 
ries, and  what  results  were  produced  1 

[47]     What  circumstances  rendered  the  excommunication  of  the 

o  Church  and  the  ban  of  the  empire  inseparable  ?  Mention 
some  instances  in  which  the  privileges  of  the  Church  were 
violated  by  the  kings.  In  what  causes  did  the  bishops  exer- 
cise a  peculiar  jurisdiction  ?  What  was  the  heaviest  ecclesi- 
astical punishment  1 
[48]  Of  how  many  sorts  were  the  warlike  enterprises  of  the  an- 

D    cient  German  states  ?    Who  was  the  leader  in  each  of  these 

A    instances  1     What  proportion  of  the  land  belonging  to  the 

B  vanquished  was  generally  claimed  by  the  conquerors  1  In 
what  manner  was  the  German  throne  at  once  hereditary  and 
elective  ?  How  was  the  successful  candidate  inaugurated  1 

c  What  offices  in  the  royal  household  were  held  by  the  nobles 
of  the  kingdom  1  What  addition  was  made  to  this  order  after 
the  introduction  of  Christianity  1  In  what  did  the  power  of 
the  kings  consist?  What  circumstances  indicate  their  de- 

D    pendence  on  the  Roman  emperors  ?     In  what  other  particu- 
lars was  the  influence  of  Rome  perceptible  ? 
[49]     What  division  was  made  of  the  territory  obtained  by  con- 

A  quest  ?  What  name  was  given  to  these  allotments  ?  What 
privilege  was  enjoyed  by  the  possessors  of  them  ?  What  was 
the  origin  of  vassalage  ?  On  what  terms  were  the  fiefs  held  ? 

B    Who  was  the  chief  of  these  vassals,  and  what  was  his  office  1 

o  How  did  these  fiefs  become  hereditary  ?  Under  what  circum- 
stances were  many  of  the  allodes  converted  into  feudal  estates  ? 
What  revolution  took  place  in  their  military  system  ?  Of  whom 
was  the  army  now  composed  ?  Describe  the  manner  in  which 
these  parties  respectively  were  called  into  active  service.  How 
often,  and  in  what  place,  was  the  Frankish  army  reviewed  ? 
[50]  Among  what  nations,  and  at  what  period,  were  written  laws 

D    first  introduced  ?    In  what  language  were  all  these  codes  drawn 

A  up?  Was  there  not  one  exception?  Under  what  circum- 
stances were  they  probably  compiled  ?  What  laws  are  found  in 
the  statute  books  of  the  eastern  and  western  Goths  and  Bur- 

B  gundians  ?  What  remarkable  difference  existed  between  the 
punishments  inflicted  on  serfs  and  on  freemen  ?  How  many 

o     sorts  of  courts  of  justice  had  they  ?     How  many  sorts  of  proof? 
By  what  circumstances  was  agricultural  improvement  in  some 
measure  retarded? 
[5l]     What  obstacles  also  existed  to  the  advancement  of  manu- 

A    facturing  and  commercial  industry  ?     To  what  causes  do  you 


172  QUESTIONS    TO    HANDBOOK  [52 57. 

attribute  the  little  influence  exercised  by  Christianity  during 
this  period? 

[52]  In  whose  hands  was  scientific  knowledge  at  this  time  1  De- 
scribe their  system  of  education.  What  do  you  understand 
by  the  terms  Triviurn  and  Quadrivium  1  Where  were  the 
B  best  educational  establishments  1  Mention  some  of  their  most 
distinguished  scholars.  In  what  language  were  all  the  works 
of  this  period  written  1 

[53 J  Enumerate  the  most  important  of  these  works.  "What 
c  specimens  have  we  of  the  transition  from  the  ancient  to  the 
modern  style  of  architecture  1 

$  15.   Tiie  Eastern  Roman  (or  Byzantine)  empire. 

[54]     What  were  the  limits  of  the  Byzantine  empire  from  A.  p. 

D    395  to  53*'?     What  additions  were  made  to  the  empire  in 

A    subsequent  years  1     What  losses  did  it  sustain  in  the  seventh, 
eighth,  and  ninth  centuries'?     What  military  arrangement 
was  adopted  during  this  period  ? 
[55]     What  portion  did  Arcadius  receive  at  the  partition  of  the 

B  empire  by  Theodosius  ?  What  was  his  character  1  Mention 
the  names  of  some  of  his  favorites.  By  what  concessions 
were  the  Huns  and  Visigoths  conciliated?  By  whom  was 
Arcadius  succeeded  1  Who  was  his  guardian  1  What  further 

c  concessions  were  extorted  from  him  by  the  Huns  1  Was  not 
this  loss  counterbalanced  by  an  accession  of  territory  1  By 
vvhom:  and  under  what  title,  was  the  first  digest  of  laws  pub- 
lished'? What  provinces  were  added  to  the  empire  by  his 

D  immediate  successors  1  Name  the  first  emperor  crowned  by 
the  patriarch  of  Constantinople.  Against  what  nation  did  he 
undertake  an  expedition,  and  with  what  success  ?  Who  was 
placed  in  his  hands  as  security  for  the  fulfilment  of  a  treaty 
by  the  Ostrogoths  1  Where  was  he  educated  ?  How  did  he 

A  afterwards  distinguish  himself]  Under  whose  auspices? 
What  military  work  was  undertaken  and  completed  by  Ana- 
stasius  1  By  whom  was  he  succeeded  1 

[56]  With  whom  did  the  new  emperor  share  his  throne  ?  How 
long  did  they  reign  conjointly  ?  By  whom  was  Justinian  gov- 
erned ?  What  was  his  first  and  greatest  work  1  Were  any 

B     other  works  on  jurisprudence  published  during  his  reign? 

c  What  was  the  Nika  ?  How  was  it  suppressed  ?  What  build- 
ings were  restored  after  the  suppression  of  the  insurrection  ? 

D  By  what  measures  did  Justinian  secure  his  northern  and 
eastern  frontiers  ?  What  great  work  did  he  next  undertake '{ 
By  what  general  was  the  empire  of  the  Vandals  destroyed  ? 
By  whom  was  the  Ostrogothic  empire  conquered  and  annexed 

A    to  the  Byzantine  empire  ?     What  Persian  king  renewed  the 

B    war?    On  what  terms  was  peace  concluded?     By  whom  was 
the  imperial  exchequer  left  full,  and  how  was  it  exhausted 
during  this  reign  ?     . 
[57]      Who  succeeded  Justinian  on  the  throne  ?    What  important 

c  military  operations  were  commenced  or  renewed  in  his  reign? 
What  heavy  losses  were  sustained  by  the  Emperor  Heraclius  ? 

D    By  what  tribes  were  the  suburbs  of  his  capital  attacked? 


58 63.]  OF    MEDIAEVAL    HISTORY.  173 

What  plan  was  proposed  by  the  emperor  in  this  extremity  7 
By  whom  was  he  persuaded  to  abandon  it  1  What  was  the 
result  of  this  change  of  policy'?  What  losses  did  the  empire 

A  sustain  soon  afterwards  1  By  the  encroachments  of  what  na- 
tions were  the  limits  of  the  empire  still  further  circumscribed  1 
By  whom  and  how  often  was  the  city  of  Constantinople  itself 

B    besieged]    How  were  the  besiegers   repulsed?     What  was 

c    the  intestine  condition  of  the  empire  at  this  time  1    To  what 

D    cause  do  you  attribute  the  religious  feuds  of  this  period  1 

A  Mention  the  most  remarkable  of  these  controversies.  By 
what  council  was  the  worship  of  images  condemned'?  By 

B    whom  was  their  restoration  at  last  effected  1     What  act  pre- 
pared the  way  for  the  separation  of  the  Greek  and  Roman 
Churches  1     What  was  the  fate  of  Michael  III.  1 
[58]     From  what  emperor  did  the  Roman  empire  receive  a  con- 

c  stitiition]  By  whom  were  the  emperors  crowned  1  What 
title  did  they  assume  1  How  did  they  endeavor  to  conceal 
their  real  weakness'?  Of  what  description  of  persons  was  the 
supreme  deliberative  council  composed  1  What  change  took 

D  place  in  the  mode  of  reckoning  time  1  By  what  sort  of  per- 
sons were  the  provinces  governed  1 

[59]      What  languages  were  spoken  by  the  court  after  its  removal 
to  Constantinople  1     To  what  species  of  composition  was  po- 

A    etry  restricted  ]   In  what  cities  do  we  find  the  most  flourishing 

schools  of  philosophy  1   Where  was  the  most  renowned  school 

of  jurisprudence]     Where  was  medicine  most  successfully 

studied '?  What  was  the  character  of  the  Byzantine  historians  1 

[60]     By  what  favorable  circumstances  was  new  life  given  to  art  1 

B  What  were  the  distinguishing  features  of  ancient  Christian 
architecture]  Where  are  these  peculiarities  seen  in  the 

c    greatest  perfection]     To  what  descriptions   of  work  were 
sculptors  confined]     In  what  age   do  we  find  the  earliest 
specimens  of  Christian  sculpture]     Into  what  western  coun- 
tries did  the  Byzantine  style  of  architecture  find  its  way  ] 
[61]     By  what  artists  was  a  knowledge  of  painting  generally  dif- 

D    fused  ]    By  what  obstacles  were  the  operations  of  commerce 

A  impeded  1  In  what  manner  was  trade  carried  on  with  the 
shores  of  the  Mediterranean  and  with  India  ]  What  city  was 
the  principal  emporium  for  western  as  well  as  eastern  pro- 
duce ]  To  what  circumstances  do  you  ascribe  the  success  of 
manufacturing  industry  ] 
[62]  By  whom,  and  from  what  country,  were  silk- worms  brought 

B  to  Constantinople  ]  What  was  the  moral  condition  of  the 
people  at  this  period  ] 

§  16.  Geography  of  Arabia. 

[63]     What  is  the  extent  of  the  Arabian  peninsula  1    What  is 
c    the  character  of  the  soil  ]     What  name  was  given  by  the  an- 
cients to  the  south-western  portion  ]     By  what  description  of 
D    persons  is  it  inhabited  ]     Name  their  most  celebrated  cities. 
What  was  their  religion  before  the  time  of  Mohammed  ]     By 
what  name  was  their  national  sanctuary  distinguished  ]    By 


174  QUESTIONS    TO    HANDBOOK  [64 70. 

what  family  was  it  superintended  1   "What  rites  were  practised 
by  the  Arabians  in  common  with  the  Jews  and  Egyptians  7 
[64]      To  whom  do  the  Arabians  trace  their  origin  1     To  what 

A     people  was  one  of  the  districts  of  Arabia  for  a  short  time  sub- 
ject 7 
[65]     Where  and  in  what  year  was  Mohammed  born  1    By  whom 

B  was  he  brought  up  1  What  fortunate  circumstance  enabled 
him  to  gratify  his  taste  for  seclusion  7  Where  did  he  pass 
one  month  in  every  year  1  Of  what  commission  did  he  pro- 

c  claim  himself  the  bearer  7  To  whom  was  this  doctrine  exclu- 
sively preached  at  first  1  By  whom  was  he  opposed  1  What 
was  the  effect  of  this  persecution?  From  what  event  do  the 
Arabians  date  their  aera  1  Where  did  he  assume  the  author- 
ity of  king  1  Whom  did  he  marry  1  By  what  means  were 
his  doctrines  propagated  1  In  what  city  did  he  establish  the 
national  sanctuary 7  What  conquests  did  he  achieve  1  What 

D    potentates  did  he  invite  to  embrace  Islamism  7     Where  did 

he  die  7     What  issue  did  he  leave  behind  him  7 
[66]      Who  was  the  first  caliph  7     What  celebrated  work  did  he 
compile  7     What  wars  were  begun  by  his  general  7   By  whom 
was  he  succeeded  7 
[67]      What  city  was  taken  by  his  generals  7    Were  any  other 

A  conquests  achieved  by  them  7  For  what  purpose  did  he  visit 
Palestine  7  On  what  terms  was  toleration  granted  to  the 
Christians  7  What  fortunate  event  enabled  the  Arabians  to 
take  rank  as  a  naval  power  7  By  whom  was  Egypt  subdued  7 
What  account  of  the  destruction  of  the  Alexandrian  library 
is  supposed  to  be  incorrect  7 
[68]  By  whom  was  Omar  succeeded  7  What  conquests  were 

B    completed  by  him  7     What  famous  work  of  art  was  sold  7 

What  was  the  fate  of  Othman7 

[69]     By  whom  was  he  succeeded  7   By  whom  was  the  new  caliph 
placed  on  the  throne  7     Why  was  he  not  generally  recog- 

c  nized7  What  measures  did  he  adopt  for  the  purpose  of 
strengthening  his  authority  7  By  whom  was  he  resisted  7 
What  conspiracy  was  entered  into,  and  what  were  its  results  7 
In  whose  favor  was  Ali  compelled  to  abdicate  7 
[70]  From  whom  is  the  name  of  Ommaijad  derived  7  To  what 
place  did  the  first  caliph  of  this  race  transfer  the  royal  resi- 

A  dence  7  What  other  important  change  did  he  effect  7  Under 
what  sovereigns  were  the  Arabian  dominions  most  extensive  7 
By  whom  were  they  invited  into  Africa  7  What  conquests 

B  did  they  achieve  in  that  quarter  of  the  globe  7  By  whom 
were  they  invited  into  Spain  7  Where  did  they  engage  the 
Goths,  and  with  what  success  7  By  whom  were  the  Arabian 

c  generals  recalled  7  How  was  the  bravery  of  Musa  rewarded  7 
What  privileges  were  the  Spanish  Christians  permitted  to  re- 
tain 7  By  whom  was  an  attempt  made  to  wrest  Gaul  from 
the  Frankish  kings,  and  with  what  success  7  Where  were 

D  battles  fought  7  What  eastern  countries  were  subdued  by 
the  Arabians  7  What  was  the  effect  of  their  success  in  India  7 
In  what  struggles  -were  the  reigning  dynasty  engaged  during 
the  progress  of  these  events  7  By  whom  was  the  throne  of 


71 77.]  OF    MEDIJEVAL    HISTORY.  175 

A    the  Abbasides  firmly  established  1    What  sanguinary  meas- 
ures were  adopted  for  the  destruction  of  the  Ommaijad  dy- 
nasty ?    Which  of  the  Ommaijad  princes  escaped,  and  where 
did  he  establish  himself  7 
[71]     In  what  light  was  Islamism  viewed  by  its  founder  1  Name 

B    the  different  branches  of  the  Mohammedan  system.     What 

c  are  its  principal  articles  of  faith  ?  What  duties  are  enjoined 
by  the  moral  law  ?  What  sins  are  permitted  1  Of  what  writ- 
ings do  the  sacred  books  of  the  Mohammedans  consist  1  Was 

D    any  other  work  subsequently  published  ?    To  what  sects  did 
the  publication  of  this  work  give  birth  1    To  what  circum- 
stances do  you  attribute  the  rapid  propagation  of  Mohamme- 
danism 1 
[72]     In  whom  was  the  supreme  authority  vested  1    What  share 

A  had  the  people  in  the  administration  1  At  what  period  did 
the  power  of  the  caliphs  become  completely  despotic'?  To 
what  circumstances  do  you  ascribe  the  gradual  increase  of 
luxury  1  What  authority  was  possessed  by  the  lieutenants 
of  the  provinces  1  What  effects  resulted  at  a  later  period 
from  their  possession  of  this  authority  1 
[73]  What  specimens  of  early  Arabian  poetry  are  extant  1 

B  Where  are  the  names  of  their  authors  inscribed  ?  What  cir- 
cumstances prevented  the  cultivation  of  science  during  the 
reign  of  the  Abbasides  1  With  the  erection  of  what  works 

c    did  the  golden  age  of  Arabian  architecture  commence  1  Why 

were  painting  and  sculpture  utterly  neglected  1 
[74]     Why  were   trade   and   manufactures   in  high  estimation 
among  the  Arabians  ?    How  far  did  their  maritime  trade  ex- 

D  tend  westward  and  southward  ?  By  what  means  was  their 
land  traffic  carried  on  1  Where  were  the  principal  markets 

A  for  eastern  and  western  produce  1  On  what  shores  did  com- 
merce especially  flourish  1 

§  17.   The  modern  Persian  empire. 

[75]     By  whom  was  the  Persian  empire  founded  ?    What  was  its 

extent  under  Chosroes  I.  and  II.  1    Into  how  many  provinces 

B    was  it  divided  1    What  name  was  given  to  the  capital  city 

with  its  suburbs  1 

[76]     With  what  nations  were  the  Persians  generally  at  war] 
c    What  is  recorded  of  Chosroes  1. 1    Before  whom  was  he  com- 
pelled to  retreat  1    On  what  conditions  did  he  renounce  his 
claims  on  Colchis'?    How  long   did   he   reign?    By  what 
D    measures  did  he  promote  the  prosperity  of  the  empire  1     To 
what  offices  was  the  government  of  the  four  provinces  in- 
trusted?   How  did  he  encourage  agricultural  enterprise? 
What  plans  did  he  adopt  for  the  promotion  of  learning  ? 

§  18.   The  Scla/vonians. 

[77]     By  what  names  were  the  eastern  neighbors  of  Germany  dis- 

A    tinguished  until  the  beginning  of  the  fifth  century  ?   For  what 

name  was  the  last  of  these  exchanged  ?    By  whom  were  these 

tribes  incorporated  into  the  Gothic  and  Hunnish  empires? 

What  territory  did  they  retain  after  the  dissolution  of  these 


176  QUESTIONS    TO    HANDBOOK  [78 85. 

B  kingdoms  1  Into  how  many  tribes  were  they  divided  1  Who 
was  recognized  as  king  by  most  of  the  Slavish  tribes  1  What 
happened  to  the  Slavish  confederacy  after  his  death  1  Mention 
some  of  the  new  empires  which  arose  from  its  ruins.  Under 
whose  dominion  did  the  southern  Slaves  remain  1 
[78]  Mention  some  particulars  in  which  a  similarity  is  discernible 

c    between  the  Slavish  and  Germanic  tribes.    What  traces  do  we 

D    find  of  physical  and  moral  difference  1    Did  their  languages 

A    at  all  resemble  one  another  ? 

$  19.  Other  nations  in  the  East  of  Europe. 

[79]     In  what  countries  did  the  Avari  establish  themselves'? 
B    What  was  the  extent  of  their  empire  in  the  year  600 1    By 
the  secession  of  what  states  were  its  limits  circumscribed  in 
the  following  century  1 

[80]     What  countries  had  been  occupied  from  time  immemorial 

c    by  the  Bulgarians  ?    In  what  century  did  they  invade  the 

D    Byzantine  empire  1    What  barriers  did  they  surmount  ?    To 

whom  were  they  indebted  for  deliverance  from  the  tyranny 

A    of  the  Avars  1    How  long  had  they  been  tributary  to  that 

nation  1    What  portion  of  his  empire  was  inherited  by  his 

third  son? 

[81]  Of  what  countries  were  the  Chazares  masters  in  the  seventh 
century  1  With  what  nations  were  they  engaged  in  almost 
perpetual  warfare  1  By  whom,  and  for  what  purpose,  was 
the  Caucasian  wall  erected  1 

§  20.   The  Prankish  empire  under  the  Carlovingians. 
[82]     What  kingdoms  were  governed  by  Pepin  the  Short  ?    By 
B    whom,  and  under  what  circumstances,  was  Pepin  invited  into 
Italy  ?  What  title  was  conferred  on  him  by  the  Pope  1  Against 
what  nation  was  he  enjoined  to  undertake  a  crusade  1    What 
possessions  were  wrested  from  the  Lombards'?    To  whom 
^  A    were  they  presented  ?    What  grievous  crime  had  been  com- 
mitted by  the  Frieses  1    What  other  nations  were  subdued 
by  Pepin'? 

[83]  Where  and  in  what  year  was  Charlemagne  born  1  With 
whom  did  he  share  the  throne  1  By  what  event  was  he  made 
sole  king  of  the  Franks  1  Whom  did  he  exclude  from  the 
succession  1 

[84]     In  what  manner  did  this  act  of  injustice  eventually  occasion 
B    the  invasion  of  Lombardy  1    In  what  city  was  Desiderius  be- 
sieged ?    What  was  the  issue  of  this  war  ?    How  did  Charle- 
magne frustrate  an  attempt  of  the  Lombard  nobles  to  reinstate 
Desiderius  on  the  throne  1 

[85]     Into  how  many  provinces  was  the  Saxon  nation  divided  1 
c    With  whom  had  they  been  engaged  in  hostilities  from  the 
A    earliest  times  1    How  was  the  preaching  of  the  Frankish  mis- 
sionaries received  by  the  Saxons  1    What  measure  was  de- 
termined on  at  the  diet  of  Worms?    What  fortress  was 
stormed  by  Charlemagne  in  the  first  campaign?    Against 
whom  did  Charlemagne  march  after  his  first  Italian  campaign  1 
B    What  success  attended  this  movement?    What  happened 


86 — 94.]  OF    MEDIEVAL    HISTORY.  177 

during  his  second  campaign  in  Italy  1    Of  what  act  of  treach- 
ery were  the  Saxons  guilty,  and  how  was  it  punished  ]    What 

c    was  the  immediate  effect  of  this  severity  1     What  became  of 
the  Wittekind  and  Alboinl    How  were  the  Saxons  finally 
subdued 1 
[86]     At  whose  instance  did  Charlemagne  invade  Spain  1    What 

D    name  was  given  to  the  district  annexed  to  the  Prankish  em- 

A    pire  1   What  celebrated  commander  was  slain  at  Roncesvalles  1 
[87]     By  whom  was  Duke  Tassilo  abetted  in  his  rebellion  against 

B    Charlemagne'?    How  was  he  punished'?    What  punishment 

was  inflicted  on  his  confederates  1     By  what  sovereign  was 

the  whole   of  their  country  afterwards  ravaged  1    By  what 

name  was  it  now  distinguished  1 

[88]     What  was  the  result  of  the  war  carried  on  by  Charle- 

c    magne's  son  against  the  Danes  and  Wilzes  1    What  river  was 
recognized  as  the  boundary  between  the  Danish  and  Frankish 
territories  1 
[89]     What  measures  were  adopted  for  the  defence  of  the  different 

frontiers  1 
[90]     By  whom  and  with  what  object  was  Charlemagne  invited 

A     to  visit  Rome  1   What  dignity  was  conferred  on  him  in  return 

B    for  these  services  1    What  was  the  character  of  the  new  re- 
lation between  the  pope  and  the  emperor  1    In  what  manner 
was  this  supremacy  mutually  recognized  1 
[91]      What  bishoprics  were  founded  by  Charlemagne  in  Saxony  1 

c     By  whom  was  Charlemagne  assisted  in  the  establishment  of 

D  schools  1  What  measures  were  adopted  for  restoring  the  re- 
spectability of  the  clergy'?  What  proofs  have  we  of  the 

A    affection  of  Charlemagne  for  his  mother  tongue  1    What  plan 

was  adopted  for  the  improvement  of  church  music'? 
[92]     To  what  nations  were  codes  of  laws  given  1     In  what  man- 

A    ner  was  a  code  formed  for  the  empire  in  general  1    By  what 

measure  was  the  execution  of  the  laws  facilitated  1 
[93]     Were  any  important  changes  effected  in  the  constitution  by 

B  Charlemagne  1  What  sort  of  opposition  did  the  emperor 
encounter  in  establishing  the  feudal  system  ?  What  division 

c    of  estates  was  still  retained'?    Which  of  the  court  offices 
was  abolished,  and  for  what  reason!    Who  were  the  em- 
peror's vicegerents  in  spiritual  and  in  temporal  matters  1 
[94]     How  many  general  assemblies  were  held  in  the  course  of 
the  year  1    What  name  was  given  to  the  first  of  these  meet- 

D  ings,  and  for  what  purpose  was  it  convened  1  At  what  place 
was  the  second  meeting  held  1  What  sort  of  questions  were 
decided  at  it  7  What  plan  did  Charlemagne  adopt  for  obtain- 

A  ing  a  more  accurate  knowledge  of  each  province"?  From 
what  classes  of  persons  were  these  officers  selected  1  What 
were  their  duties'?  From  what  description 'of  persons  was 

B  military  service  required  1  What  indulgence  was  granted  to 
those  who  possessed  less  than  the  legal  qualification  ?  By 
whom  was  the  militia  of  each  province  commanded  1  What 
fine  was  imposed  on  those  who  neglected  to  appear  at  the 

c    place  of  rendezvous  1    Were  any  persons  exempt  from  this 
service  1  On  whom  was  the  punishment  of  death  still  inflicted  1 
From  what  sources  were  the  imperial  revenues  derived  1 
8* 


178  QUESTIONS    TO    HANDBOOK  [95 109. 

[95]  "What  measures  were  adopted  for  the  encouragement  of 
commerce  1  How  had  it  been  crippled  7  Among  whom  did 
D  Charlemagne  divide  his  empire  7  Who  succeeded  him  in  the 
imperial  and  royal  dignities  1  From  whom  did  he  receive  his 
crown  1  To  whom  was  the  kingdom  of  Italy  granted,  and  on 
what  condition  1  When  and  where  did  Charlemagne  die,  and 
where  was  he  buried  1 

[96]      What  was  the  character  of  Lewis  the  Pious  7    What  new 
A     regulations  did  he  promulgate  1    Among  whom  did  he  divide 
his  empire  1    Which  of  his  sons  was  raised  to  the  imperial 
throne  1    What  portions  of  the  empire  were  granted  to  the 
others  1    On  what  prince  was  an  atrocious  act  of  cruelty  per- 
petrated 1     Who  succeeded  him  as  king  of  Italy  7 
[97]     What  was  the  name  of  the  emperor's  second  wife,  and  what 
B    issue  had  he  by  her  1     What  provocation  occasioned  the  re- 
bellion of  the  emperor's  sons  7     Where  was  a  battle  fought, 
and  what  name  was  given  to  the  field  7     What  was  the  result 
c    of  this  engagement  1    By  whom  was  Lewis  restored  1    What 
became  of  Pepin  and  his  sons  1    Among  whom,  and  by  whose 
advice,  were  the  dominions  of  Lewis  divided  1    What  district 
was  allotted  to  each  1 

[98]     What  circumstances  occasioned  the  battle  of  Fontenay.  and 
A    what  was  its  result  1    What  famous  treaty  was  concluded  at 
[99]  the  end  of  this  war  7 

[100]     Describe  the  districts  severally  allotted  to  the  three  sons  of 
[101]  Lewis  the  Pious  1 

B        Whence  do  you  derive  the  name  of  Lorraine  7 
[102]     By  what  untoward  circumstance  were  these  three  king- 
c  doms  thrown  into  confusion  1     Who  were  the  Normans,  and 
in  what  part  of  France  did  they  carry  on  their  predatory  war- 
fare 1     Did  any  other  pirates  visit  Italy  7    What  depredations 
did  the  Normans  commit  in  Germany  1    By  what  tribes  was 
the  eastern  frontier  of  his  kingdom  disturbed  during  the 
reign  of  Charles  the  Bald  1 

[103]     Among  whom  did  Lothar  I.  divide   his  kingdom?    By 
A    whom  was  Lorraine  seized  after  the  death  of  Lothar  II. 
[104]     Who  succeeded  Lewis  II.  as  king  of  Italy  and  Roman  em- 
peror 1   Among  whom  was  the  kingdom  of  Lewis  the  German 
divided  7     Which  of  these  became  sole  occupant  of  the  throne 
B    after  the  death  of  his  brothers]    By  whom,  and  in  conse- 
quence of  what  events,  was  the  Frankish  monarchy  reunited  7 
What  provinces  were    excluded    from    this    arrangement  7 
c    What  cities  were  destroyed  by  the   Normans  7    For  what 
reasons  was  Charles  the  Bald  deposed  by  his  subjects  7     Into 
how  many  portions  was  the  Frankish  empire  divided  after 
his  death  7 

!105]     To  whom  was  the  Western  Frankish  empire  assigned  7 
106]     Who  reigned  in  Germany  7 
107]     Into  how  many  portions  was  Germany  divided,  and  by 

whom  were  they  governed  7 

[108]     Between  whom  was  the  sovereignty  of  Italy  disputed  7 
[109]     To  what  circumstances  do  you  ascribe  the  origin  and  influ- 
A     ence  of  the  temporal  and  ecclesiastical  aristocracy  under  the 
successors  of  Charlemagne  7     By  what  practices  were  these 


110  -  114.]  OF    MEDIAEVAL    HISTORY.  179 

usurpations  facilitated  1  What  was  the  policy  of  the  kings 
during  this  period  ?  Mention  one  instance  of  their  weakness. 
c  In  what  provinces  were  the  suppressed  dukedoms  restored  1 
To  what-  circumstances  do  you  attribute  the  increased  influ- 
ence of  the  clergy  during  this  period  ?  "What  were  the  de- 
cretals of  S.  Isidore,  and  what  effect  was  produced  by  them'? 

§  21.   The  East  Prankish  empire  under  the  two  last 

Carlovingians. 

[110]     By  whom  and  in  what  manner  were  Italy  and  Burgundy 

A    reunited  to  the  German  empire  1    By  whom  were  the  Nor- 

mans utterly  defeated  ?     To  what  circumstances  do  you  as- 

B    cribe  their  perseverance  in  acts  of  piracy  after  this  defeat  1 

By  whom  were  the  Moravians  expelled  from  their  country  1 
[111]     Who  were  the  guardians  of  Lewis  the  Child'?    In  what 
c    countries,  and   for  what  purpose,  were   national  dukedoms 
established  1     Where  was  the  ducal  dignity  re-established  1 
How  many  national  dukes  were  in  Germany  at  this  period  1 

§  22.  Empire  of  the  East  Franks  under  Conrad  I.  of  Franconia. 
[112]  By  what  nations  was  an  attempt  made  to  establish  indepen- 

A  dent  kingdoms  after  the  extinction  of  the  Carlovingian  race  ? 
By  whom  was  Otho  the  Illustrious  elected  emperor,  and  on 
what  grounds  did  he  refuse  the  crown?  Who  was  then 
chosen  7  Was  not  the  election  more  unanimous  on  this  than 

B  on  the  former  occasion  1  What  becnme  of  Lorraine  1  How 
was  Conrad  occupied  during  the  whole  of  his  reign?  By 
what  marauders  were  the  provinces  infested  1  What  was  the 

c  conduct  of  the  Duke  of  Bavaria  1  Whom  did  Conrad  recom- 
mend as  his  successor  1  How  many  German  dukedoms  were 
there  at  this  time  1 

§  23.   The  German  empire  under  kings  of  the  house  of  Saxony. 
By  what  surname  was  Henry  I.  distinguished  1    How  did 
e  carry  into  effect  the  plans   of  his  predecessor  1     What 

D  province  did  he  reunite  to  the  empire  1  For  how  long  a  pe- 
riod, and  on  what  terms,  did  he  conclude  an  armistice  with 
the  Hungarians  1  How  was  this  time  employed  1  What  for- 

A  tresses  did  he  build?  What  surname  did  he  obtain  from 
this  circumstance  1  Against  what  nations  was  the  army  ex- 
ercised in  warfare  ?  What  advantage  was  obtained  by  the 
conquest  of  the  Sclavonians  1  How  many  margravates  were 

B    established  for  the  defence  of  the  frontiers  ?   Where  did  Hen- 

ry engage  the  Hungarians,  and  with  what  success  1 
[114]     By  whom  was  he  succeeded  1    What  remarkable  circum- 
stance distinguished  his  election  1    Where  was  the  ceremony 
of  coronation  performed  from  this  time  ?    With  whom  was  he 

c  engaged  in  disputes  during  the  first  years  of  his  reign  1  In 
what  manner  did  Otho  attempt  to  diminish  the  influence  of 
the  dukes  1  How  was  his  own  authority  strengthened  1  On 
whom,  and  for  what  service,  did  he  confer  his  own  dukedom 

D  of  Saxony  1  Into  how  many  districts  did  he  divide  Lorraine  1 
By  what  measures  was  the  constitution  in  church  and  state 
materially  improved  1 


[113] 
h 


180  QUESTIONS    TO    HANDBOOK  [115 120. 

[115]     What  was  the  issue  of  his  war  with  the  Danes  1    What 

A  happened  to  the  duke  of  Bohemia  1  What  circumstances  oc- 
casioned Otho's  first  campaign  in  Italy  1  Whom  did  he  mar- 

B  ry7  On  whom  did  he  bestow  the  sovereignty  of  Italy] 
Where  were  the  Hungarians  defeated,  and  what  important 
event  followed  1  What  effect  was  produced  by  a  victory  over 

c  the  Wendish  Sclavonians  1  What  title  was  revived  by  Otho 
1. 1  How  long  was  this  title  borne  by  the  German  kings  1 
By  what  measures  did  Otho  endeavor  to  improve  the  condi- 

A    tion  of  his  cities  7    What  advantages  did  he  gain  in  his  third 

Italian  campaign  1    To  whom  did  he  marry  his  son  1 
[116]     What  events  occurred  during  the  war  between  Otho  II. 
and  the  King  of  France  1    How  was  this  war  terminated  1 
What  circumstance  furnished  Otho  with  an  excuse  for  enter- 

B    ing  Lower  Italy  with  an  army  1    By  whom  and  where  was  he 

attacked,  and  with  what  result  1  Where  did  he  die  1 
[117]  By  whom  was  he  succeeded  1  Who  were  the  guardians  of 
the  young  king  7  What  province  was  erected  into  a  seventh 
duchy  1  By  what  party  was  an  attempt  made  to  emancipate 
Rome  from  the  German  yoke  1  What  measures  were  adopted 
by  Otho  in  consequence  of  this  rebellion  7  What  favorite  pro- 

c    ject  was  he  unable  to  carry  out  1    By  what  peculiarity  was 

the  election  of  his  successor  distinguished  7 

[118]  What  surname  was  given  to  him  7  What  conditions  were 
required  from  him,  which  had  never  been  imposed  on  any  of 
his  predecessors  7  What  attempts  were  made  by  some  of  the 

A  provinces  during  his  absence  in  Germany  7  How  were  these 
attempts  defeated  by  Henry  7  What  circumstance  occasioned 
his  second  visit  to  Italy  7  What  event  terminated  the  con- 
tests between  native  and  German  princes  for  the  possession 

B  of  the  Italian  crown  7  What  advantages  were  gained  in  a 
third  Italian  campaign  7  To  whom  was .  Henry  in  a  great 
measure  indebted  for  his  victory  7  How  were  they  rewarded  7 

$  24.   The  German  empire  under  the  Franconian  emperors. 

[119]  By  whose  suffrages  was  Conrad  II.  elected  7  Where  was 
he  crowned  7  What  was  the  first  act  of  his  reign  7  What 
country  was  added  to  the  German  empire,  and  under  what 
circumstances  7  Over  what  countries  was  the  supremacy  of 
c  Germany  re-established  7  To  whom  did  Conrad  cede  a  por- 
tion of  his  dominions  7  What  was  the  effect  of  this  cession  7 
What  law  was  passed  by  Conrad  during  his  second  visit  to 
Italy  7  By  what  measure  was  his  family  influence  extended  7 

[120]  What  was  the  first  act  of  Henry's  administration  7  In 
A  what  manner  did  he  establish  the  imperial  authority,  without 
the  intervention  of  any  secondary  power,  over  the  whole  of 
southern  Germany  7  Was  the  same  effect  produced  in  any 
other  countries  7  What  foreign  prince  was  reduced  to  sub- 
mission 7  How  was  the  feudal  sovereignty  over  Hungary 
secured  7  What  kingdoms  and  dukedoms  did  the  German 
B  empire  comprise  at  this  time  7  What  measures  were  adopted 
for  the  better  maintenance  of  peace  in  Alemannia.  Bavaria, 
and  Carinthia  7  What  was  the  condition  of  Franconia  at  this 
time  7  What  was  the  "  Treuga  Dei  7  " 


121 126.]  OF    MEDIAEVAL    HISTORY.  181 

[121]  What  was  Henry's  next  project  1  "What  were  the  two  most 
glaring-  ecclesiastical  irregularities  at  this  time'?  In  what 
manner  did  Henry  endeavor  to  re-establish  unity  in  the 

c  Church'?  How  was  he  rewarded  for  these  services  1  What 
sort  of  ecclesiastical  laws  were  enacted  7  Who  resisted  his 

D    plans   for   subjecting   the   Church  to  the  temporal  power'? 

What  benefit  did  Henry  confer  on  the  Normans  7     By  what 

tenure  were  they  afterwards  content  to  hold  their  possessions  1 

[122]     At  what  age  was  Henry  IV.  called  to  the  throne  7     Who 

A  was  his  guardian  1  By  whom  was  the  administration  of  the 
kingdom  usurped  1  Who  wrested  it  from  his  hands'?  What 
sentence  was  passed  on  Adalbert]  By  whose  threats  was 

B  Henry  compelled  to  adopt  this  measure'?  What  German 
prince  was  unjustly  deprived  of  his  dukedom,  arid  on  whom 
was  it  conferred  1  What  was  the  conduct  of  Henry  after  the 

c    death  of  Adalbert  1    Against  what  country  did  he  particu- 
larly carry  on  his  operations  1    Whom  did  he  detain  a  pris- 
oner 1 
[123]     What  circumstances  occasioned  the  Saxon  insurrection'? 

D  Before  what  city  did  the  Saxon  army  first  appear  1  Whither 
did  Henry  fly,  and  how  was  he  received  by  the  citizens'? 

A  Where  and  on  what  terms  was  peace  concluded'?  Who 
refused  to  ratify  this  peace  1  What  was  the  effect  of  their 
refusal  1 

[124]  What  offices  had  been  held  by  Hildebrand  before  his 
elevation  to  the  papal  throne  1  What  was  his  favorite  pro- 

B    ject  1    How  did  he  prepare  the  way  for  its  ultimate  success  7 

c  What  important  ally  was  secured  7  What  title  did  Hilde- 
brand assume,  and  for  what  reason  7  What  measures  did  he 
adopt  for  securing  the  independence  of  the  clergy  7  What  is 

D    meant  by  "  investiture  7  "     What  was  the  conduct  of  Henry 

A  under  these  circumstances  7  How  did  Gregory  punish  his 
audacity  7  Why  did  Henry  cross  the  Alps,  and  how  was  he 
treated  by  the  Pope  on  his  arrival  in  Italy  7  On  what  condi- 
tions did  he  obtain  a  reversal  of  the  sentence  of  excommuni- 

B  cation  7  Who  had  been  chosen  emperor  during  his  absence  7 
On  what  terms  was  the  new  emperor  elected  7  What  was  his 

c  fate  7  Whom  did  Henry  place  on  the  papal  throne  in  the 
room  of  Gregory  VII.  7  To  whom  did  he  leave  the  prosecution 
of  the  war  in  Germany  7  From  what  pope  did  he  receive  the 
imperial  crown  7  After  what  important  victory  7  What  be- 

n    came  of  Gregory  VII.  7    Where  did  he  die  7    Who  had  been 
elected  emperor  during  Henry's  absence  in  Italy  7    By  what 
nations  was  he  chosen  7     How  long  did  he  reign  7 
[125]     By  whom,  and  at  whose  instigation,  was  the  crown  of  Italy 

A  assumed  7  How  was  he  punished  for  this  act  of  treason  7  To 
whom  was  the  succession  secured,  and  on  what  conditions  7 

B     How  was  this  compact  violated  7     Of  what  act  of  violence 

were    the    conspirators    guilty,   and  what  was    its    effect  7 

Where  did  Henry  IV.  die  7     Where  was  his  body  afterwards 

buried  7 

[126]     What  twofold  object  had  Henry  V.  in  view  7   How  was  the 

c  first  of  these  objects  promoted  7  What  proposal  was  made  by 
the  pope,  and  how  was  it  received  by  the  German  clergy  7 


182  QUESTIONS    TO    HANDBOOK  [127 135. 

D  To  what  conditions  was  he  compelled  to  accede  1  On  what 
grounds  was  this  decree  annulled  1  How  long  did  the  contest 

A  last,  and  how  was  it  terminated  1  What  were  the  conditions 
of  this  compact  1 

* 

Changes  in  the  Constitution  during  the  Saxon  and  Franconian 


[127]     What  practice  disappeared  with  the  extinction  of  the  Car- 
B    lovingian  line  7     Was  the  hereditary  right  of  succession  en- 
tirely abolished  1    When  did  the  election  of  the  successor  to 
the  throne  take  place  1    At  whose  election  was  the  elective 
c    character  of  the  monarchy  fully  established  1    How  were  the 

limits  of  the  royal  authority  denned  7 

[128]     Whose  functions  were  usurped  by  the  dukes  after  the 
D    death  of  Charlemagne  1    How  was  their  authority  crippled  1 
By  whom  were  they  nominated  7    In  whose  reign  were  most 
of  the  dukedoms  made  hereditary  1 

[129]     In  whose  reign  was  the  number  of  margraves  increased  1 
A     What  powers  did  they  possess  1 
[130]     What  were  the  duties  of  the  counts  palatine  1    Who  was 

the  most  important  among  them  1 

[131]     Were  the  counties  hereditary  or  elective  under  the  Fran- 
B    conian  kings  1     What  was  the  most  important  duty  of  the 
count 7 

§  25.  Italy. 

[132]    How  long  was  Italy  governed  by  kings  of  its  own  7     By 
whom  was  it  reunited  to  Germany  7     What  was  its  condition 

c    after  the  death  of  Arnulf  7   By  whom  was  the  country  ravaged 

during  this  period  7 
[133]     By  whom  was  a  fruitless  attempt  made  to  deprive  Henry 

A  II.  of  the  Italian  crown  7  What  was  the  condition  of  Italy 
under  the  Othos  7  What  privileges  were  conferred  by  them 
on  the  priesthood  7  What  measures  were  adopted  by  the 
Emperor  Conrad  for  restraining  the  power  of  the  great  feudal 
lords  7  What  important  privilege  was  at  the  same  time  se- 
cured to  the  people  7  What  revolutionary  measure  was 
adopted  by  the  Lombard  cities  during  the  reigns  of  Henry 
IV.  and  Henry  V. 
[134]  By  whom  were  the  Venetian  Islands  originally  peopled  7 

B  How  were  they  governed  in  the  first  instance  7  To  what  na- 
tions were  they  successively  subject  7  At  what  period  was 
the  form  of  government  changed  7  When,  and  for  what  cause, 
was  their  connection  with  the  Byzantine  empire  dissolved  7 

c    What  island  became  the  seat  of  government  and  centre  of  a 
maritime  city  7     By  what  conquests  did  the  Venetian  repub- 
lic enlarge  its  dominions  7     To  what  advantageous  circum- 
stances was  it  indebted  for  its  importance  7 
[135]     Who  laid  the  foundation  of  the  pope's  temporal  power  7 

D  What  provinces  were  settled  on  the  papal  see,  and  by  whom 
was  this  endowment  confirmed  7  By  what  name  was  this  ter- 
ritory distinguished  7  What  addition  was  made  to  it  by 
Henry  III.  7  What  concession  was  made  by  the  pope  in  re- 
turn for  this  benefit  7  Through  whose  liberality  was  a  still 

\ 


136 — 149.]  OF    MEDIAEVAL    HISTORY.  183 

more  important  accession  of  territory  obtained?  On  what 
terms  were  Apulia  and  Calabria  held  by  the  Normans  1  Of 
what  nature  was  the  pope's  authority  within  the  walls  of 
Rome,  and  throughout  the  dukedom  in  which  it  was  situated  1 

[136]  What  sort  of  government  was  established  in  Lower  Italy 
B  on  the  ruins  of.,the  Lombard  empire  1  What  was  its  condition 
at  first,  and  subsequently  1  What  provinces  separated  from 
it,  and  formed  independent  principalities'?  What  districts 
were  retained  by  the  Greeks  1  By  what  people  were  these 
districts  perpetually  molested  1 

[137]  To  whom  did  the  whole  of  Lower  Italy  become  a  prey  in 
c  the  fourteenth  century  1  When  did  they  first  visit  Italy  1 
What  city  did  they  build  1  What  Norman  noble  was  invested 
by  the  pope  with  the  dignity  of  duke,  and  what  fiefs  were 
D  granted  to  him  1  Under  what  pretence  did  he  raise  an  army  1 
Where  did  he  obtain  a  victory  1  Against  what  city  did  he 
A  advance  1  By  what  circumstances  was  he  compelled  to  re- 
turn 1  Where  did  he  die  1  By  what  prince  were  Apulia  and 
Calabria  united  with  Sicily  1  What  name  was  given  to  the 
new  kingdom'? 

[138]  By  whom  was  Sicily  taken  from  the  Byzantines,  and  to 
whom  were  the  conquerors  compelled  to  surrender  it  ? 

[139]     To  whom  did  Sardinia  belong  from  the  year  850  to  1022 1 

[140]  To  whom  was  Corsica  at  first  subject  1  What  two  nations 
afterwards  contended  for  the  possession  of  it,  and  how  long 
did  the  struggle  continue  1 

$  26.  France  under  the  last  Carlovingians. 

[141]  By  whom,  and  under  what  circumstances,  was  Otho  elected 
king  of  France  1 

[142]     Were  the  anticipations  of  the  electors  realized  1 
143]     Who  succeeded  Otho  1    What  dignities  did  he  confer  on 
Rollo  1     What  was  the  effect  of  this  arrangement  1    Of  what 
province  did  Charles  take  possession  after  the  extinction  of 
the  Carlovingian  race  in  Germany  1 
[144]     By  whom,  and  for  what  reason,  was  Robert  elected  1    What 

was  his  fate  ? 

[145]    By  whom  was  he  succeeded  1    What  became  of  Charles  1 
A    By  whom  was  Lorraine  reunited  with  Germany  1 
[146]     Who  succeeded  Rudolph  1    What  surname  did  he  bear  ? 
[147]    Against  whom,  and  with  what  results,  did  his  successor 
B    carry  on  war  1    How  long  did  Lewis  V.  reign,  and  by  whom 

was  he  succeeded? 
[148]     Why  was  his  uncle  Charles  excluded  from  the  succession? 

Whence  did  Hugo  derive  his  surname  of  Capet  1 
[149]     What  was  the  political  condition  of  France  at  this  time  1 
What  provinces  were  under  the  immediate  control  of  the  Car- 
lovingians 1    Name  the  immediate  fiefs  of  the  crown  ?    What 
was  the  foundation  of  the  distinction  between  Northern  and 
Southern  France  ?    By  what  peculiarities  of  character  were 
A    the  inhabitants  of  these  two  districts  distinguished  ?     What 
distinct  legal  codes  were  established  in  the  North  and  in  the 
South  of  France  ? 


184  QUESTIONS    TO    HANDBOOK  [150 159. 


§  27.  France  under  the  four  first  Capets. 

[150]     By  whom  was  the  dukedom  of  Francia  annexed  to  the 

crown  1     What  measures  did  he  adopt  for  conciliating  the 

clergy  and  lay  nobles  1    After  whose  death  was  he  generally 

B    recognized  as  king  1     What  was  the  extent  of  his  authority  1 

[151]  By  whom  was  he  succeeded  1  What  territory  was  added 
by  the  new  sovereign  to  the  possessions  of  the  crown  ?  On 
whom  was  it  conferred  1  Of  what  royal  family  was  he  the 
ancestor  1 

[152]     By  what  authority  was  the  Treuga  Dei  established  1 

[153]  What  remarkable  event  occurred  in  England  during  the 
c  reign  of  Philip  I.  of  France  1 

§  28.     England  under  the  West  Saxon  kings. 
[154]     By  whom  were  the  seven  Anglo-Saxon  kingdoms  united 
under  one  crown  1     What  name  did  he  give  to  the  island  of 
D    Britain  1   By  what  foreign  invaders  was  the  kingdom  ravaged 

during  the  reign  of  Egbert  1 

[155]     What  was  the  condition  of  England  at  the  accession  of 
A    Alfred  the  Great  1   Where  was  he  compelled  to  pass  a  winter  1 
How  did  he  obtain  information  respecting  the  Danes'?     In 
what  manner  did  he  avail  himself  of  this  knowledge  1     What 
concessions  were  extorted  from  the  Danish  leader  1 
[156]     What  measures  were  adopted  by  Alfred  for  the  security 
B    of  his  kingdom  ]    How  was  the  administration  of  justice  fa- 
cilitated 1     What  plans  were  adopted  for  the  advancement  of 
c    learning  1    Against  what  enemies  was  Alfred  now  compelled 
to  take  the  field  1    By  what  Anglo-Saxon  king  was  tribute 
paid  to  the  Danes,  and  what  was  the  effect  of  this  compro- 
D    raise  1   What  cruel  act  was  perpetrated  by  Ethelred,  and  how 
was  it  avenged  1 

$  29.     Supremacy  of  the  Danes  in  England. 

[157]     With  whom  did  Canute  at  first  share  his  throne  1    Into 
A    how  many  provinces  did  he  divide  England  1     What  impor- 
tant reforms  did  he  effect  1    Of  what  other  dominions  did  he 
B    become  possessed  by  negotiation  or  conquest  ?   Among  whom 
was  his  empire  divided  after  his  death  1    Who  succeeded 
Harold  on  the  English  throne  7 

§  30.     Restoration  and  extinction  of  the  Anglo-Saxon  dynasty. 

[158]  By  whom  was  Edward  the  Confessor  governed  1  What 
c  innovations  excited  discontent  among  the  Saxon  inhabitants  1 
D  By  whom  was  he  succeeded  ?  What  was  the  fate  of  Harold 

It.1     What  surname  was  given  to  William  in  consequence  of 

this  victory  1 

$  31.     Scotland. 

[159]    By  what  races  was  Scotland  inhabited  1    By  whom,  and 

A    under  what  name,  were  the  two  kingdoms  united?     What 

enemies  were  successfully  resisted  by  the  Scots  1    By  what 

English  monarch  was  Cumberland  granted  to  the  king  of 

Scotland  ?    On  what  conditions  1    By  whom  were  Scotland 


160 — 167.]  OF   MEDIAEVAL   HISTORY.  185 

and  Cumberland  conquered  1    On  what  terms  were  they  per- 
mitted to  retain  their  kings  1 

$  32.     Ireland. 

[160]     Into  how  many  states  was  Ireland  divided  at  the  period  of 

B    its  conquest  by  the  English  1    Name  these  states.     In  what 

century,  and  by  whom,  were  the  Irish  converted  to  Christi- 

c    anity  1    By  what  unfavorable  circumstances,  and  for  how  long 

a  period,  was  the  progress  of  civilization  retarded  in  Ireland  1 

$  33.     Spain. 

[161]    Under  what  Caliphs,  and  for  how  long  a  period,  did  the 
D    Arabian  portion  of  the  Peninsula  enjoy  uninterrupted  pros- 
perity 1   By  what  river  was  Arabian  separated  from  Christian 
A    Spain,  and  what  was  the  amount  of  its  population  1    Describe 
its  capital  city.     What  were  the  chief  employments  "of  the 
population  1     To  what  extent  were  the  arts  and  sciences  cul- 
tivated 1 

[162]     After  what  event,  and  under  what   circumstances,  was 
B    Arabian  Spain  annexed  to  the  empire  of  Morocco  1 
[163]     How  many  Christian  kingdoms  were  there  in  Spain_at  the 

conclusion  of  this  period  1 

[164]     To  which  of  these  kingdoms  did  Portugal  belong  1   In  what 
c,  D  year  was  it  separated  7 

§  34.     The  Byzantine  empire  under  the  Macedonian  emperors. 
[165]     "What  countries  did  the  empire  comprehend  at  the  com- 

A    mencement  of  this  period  1     By  whom,  and  under  what  title, 

B  was  the  code  of  Justinian  republished  1  What  countries 
were  wrested  from  the  Arabians,  and  by  whom  1  By  what 
emperor  was  Bulgaria  conquered  1  Who  were  raised  to  the 
throne  after  the  extinction  of  the  Macedonian  male  line  1  By 
whom  was  the  last  of  these  rulers  deposed  1 
[166]  What  position  did  the  Byzantine  empire  occupy  at  this 

c  period  among  the  kingdoms  of  the  Christian  world  1  By 
what  name  did  the  Byzantines  designate  themselves,  and  what 

D  appellation  did  they  reject  with  scorn  7  In  whom  were  the 
legislative  and  executive  authorities  united  1  By  whom  was 
the  senate  deprived  of  its  last  vestige  of  power  1 

§  35.     The  Arabians  under  the  Abbasides. 
[167]     To  what  city  was  the  seat  of  government  transferred  soon 

A  after  the  accession  of  the  Abbasides  1  By  whom  was  this  city 
built  1  Of  what  Christian  sovereign  was  the  Caliph  Harun 
al  Raschid  a  contemporary  and  friend  1  By  which  of  the 

B  Caliphs  were  the  arts  and  sciences  fostered  7  Mention  the 
causes  which  eventually  produced  the  dissolution  of  the  Ca- 
liphate. How  did  the  first  of  these  causes  operate  in  Spain. 
Africa,  and  Asia  1  By  whom,  and  at  what  period,  were  most 
of  the  Asiatic  possessions  of  the  Caliphs  united  under  one 

c  crown  1  After  what  event  was  this  union  dissolved  1  What 
portion  of  the  empire  remained  in  the  hands  of  the  Caliphs  7 

D  What  power  was  exercised  by  the  Turkish  body-guard  7 
What  formidable  sects  existed  at  this  period  7  To  whom  did 


186  QUESTIONS   TO    HANDBOOK  [168 173. 

the  Caliphs  intrust  the  affairs  of  government,  and  what  office 
did  they  reserve  to  themselves  1 

§  36.     Scandinavia. 

[168]    What  was  the  political  condition  of  Norway  until  the  ninth 
A    century  7     Who  founded  the  Norwegian  kingdom,  and  what 
islands  were  added  to  it  by  conquest  7     What  became  of  the 
chieftains  who  refused  to  submit  to  his  authority  1     What 
B    kingdom  did  they  found  1     By  whom  was  Christianity  intro- 
duced 1    Who  conquered  and  divided  Norway  1 
[169]     By  whom  was  its  independence  re-established  7    By  how 
c    many  races  was  Sweden  inhabited  7   How  were  the  latter  sub- 
divided 7     Who  placed  the  different  tribes  under  one  sove- 
reign 1    Where  did  he  reside  7   By  whom,  and  at  what  period, 
were  the  Swedes  converted  to  Christianity  1 
[170]     By  whom  were  the  Danish  islands  and  Jutland  united  into 
one  kingdom  7    From  what  fabulous  hero  did  he  trace  his 
A    descent!    How  long  did  his  male  descendants  occupy  the 
throne  1    What  countries  were  conquered  by  Sweyn  1    By 
whom  was  he  succeeded  in  England  1    By  whom  was  Schles- 
wig  annexed  to  the  kingdom  of  Denmark  7     By  a  convention 
B    with  what  emperor  1     What  kingdom  was  again  reduced  to 
submission  7     In  what  manner  did  Canute  endeavor  to  pro- 
mote Christianity  1    To  whom  was  Denmark  subject  after  his 
death  7    By  whom  was  it  emancipated  1 

§  37.     Russia. 
[171]    By  what  tribes  were  the  southern,  northern,  and  central 

c  parts  of  Russia  inhabited  7  By  what  chieftain  and  at  what 
period,  was  the  grand  duchy  of  Russia  founded  1  What  was 
its  capital  7  To  what  city  was  the  government  afterwards 

D  transferred  7  Under  what  circumstances  was  Christianity  in- 
troduced into  Russia  7  What  Russian  sovereign  first  em- 
braced Christianity  7  What  district  was  conquered  by  this 
sovereign  7  In  what  manner  did  he  endeavor  to  civilize  his 

A    subjects  1    By  what  title  was  Kiev  popularly  designated  7 

§  38.     Poland. 

[172]  By  what  name  were  the  Slaves  on  the  middle  Vistula  gen- 
erally known  7  Whom  did  they  first  choose  for  their  duke, 
and  what  was  the  date  of  his  election  7  How  long  did  his 
family  reign  in  Poland  7  Which  of  their  dukes  first  embraced 
B  Christianity  7  Whom  did  he  recognize  as  his  feudal  sove- 
reign 7  By  whose  assistance  did  his  son  exterminate  the 
remnants  of  heathenism  7  In  what  cities  did  he  found  bish- 
oprics 7  Against  what  nations  did  he  carry  on  wars,  and  with 
what  success  7  What  dignity  did  he  assume  a  short  time 
before  his  death  7  Under  what  circumstances  did  Poland 
again  become  a  dukedom  7 

§  39.     Hungary. 

IJy    what    other    name    were    the    Hungarians    known  7 
ence  did  they  come  7   Under  what  leader  7  What  country 


[173]    I 
c    Wh 


174 178.]  OF    MEDIAEVAL    HISTORY.  187 

did  they  enter  1  Of  what  countries  did  the  Hungarians  ob- 
D  tain  possession  1  By  whom  were  they  driven  back  1  In 

what  century  was  Christianity  introduced  among  them  1     By 

what  king  were  several  bishoprics  founded  1  By  whom,  and 
A  in  what  year,  was  he  crowned  1  "What  became  of  his  son  1 

By  whose  assistance  did  he  recover  his  throne  1    By  whom 

was  tranquillity  eventually  restored  ? 

§40.     Religion,  arts,  sciences,  tf*c.,  during  the  first  period. 
[174]     In  what  light  was  the  increasing  influence  of  the  clergy 

B  viewed  by  the  temporal  power  1  What  privileges  belonged 
to  the  pope  1  In  what  cases  had  he  judicial  authority  over 
laymen  1  What  territories  did  he  possess  1  How  were  the 

c    monks  generally  employed  1   To  what  causes  do  you  attribute 

D  the  laxity  of  monastic  discipline  at  this  period  7  By  what 
circumstance  was  a  partial  reformation  effected  1  By  what 
rule  were  the  new  convents  governed  1  Who  endeavored  to 
introduce  this  rule  into  the  convents  of  England  7  What  new 

A  orders  were  founded  in  the  eleventh  century  1  At  what  pe- 
riod were  cathedral  chapters  founded  1  By  whom  were  they 
generally  established  1 

[175J     In  what  manner  was  the  cultivation  of  the  arts  and  sci- 
ences promoted  by  the  Caliphs  during  this  period  1 
[176]     What  learned  establishments  existed  in  the  Arabian  pro- 

B    vinces  1    What  is  the  general  character  of  Arabian  literature  1 

c    In  what  sciences  were  the  labors  of  their  learned  men  most 

D    successful  1    Why  was  the  study  of  anatomy  omitted  1    How 

A  was  this  defect  in  some  measure  supplied  7  What  works 
were  produced  by  the  Arabian  school  of  architecture,  and 
what  were  its  characteristics  1  Who  was  the  most  renowned 

B  of  the  Persian  poets  1  What  was  the  state  of  Greek  litera- 
ture at  this  period  ?  Mention  the  chief  philosophical  writers. 

c  In  what  condition  were  sculpture  and  painting  1  Mention  the 
historical  works  published  in  the  West  of  Europe.  Describe 

D  the  scholastic  philosophy  taught  in  the  church  schools  during 
this  period.  Name  the  most  distinguished  professors  of  phi- 

A  losophy.  Where  were  jurisprudence  and  mathematics  most 
successfully  studied  1  At  what  period  did  the  Latin  cease  to 

B  be  a  living  language  1  Mention  the  earliest  specimens  of 
German  literature.  What  architectural  works  were  produced 
during  this  period  1  In  what  condition  were  painting  and 
music  1  In  what  countries  did  trade  and  manufacturing  in- 
dustry principally  nourish  1 
[177]  To  what  ports  was  the  commerce  of  Byzantium  gradually 

c,  D  transferred  1  What  German  city  was  the  emporium  of  the 
trade  between  the  East  and  West,  and  between  the  North  and 
South  1  To  what  ports  did  the  cities  of  the  North  and  South 
of  France  trade  1  By  what  circumstances  was  manufacturing 
industry  chiefly  promoted  1 

$  41.     The  First  Crusade. 

[178]  What  practice  had  existed  for  many  years  among  the 
A  Christians  of  the  Roman  empire  1  By  whom  were  the  pil- 
B  grims  persecuted,  and  what  was  the  effect  of  this  intolerant 


188  QUESTIONS    TO    HANDBOOK  [179 185. 

measure  1    By  whom  were  the  complaints  of  the  eastern 

c  Christians  seconded  7  What  was  the  immediate  effect  of  his 
preaching  1  Describe  the  commencement  of  the  Crusade. 

A  What  was  the  fate  of  the  first  detachment  of  crusaders  1  By 
whom  was  an  expedition  on  a  larger  scale  undertaken  1  Who 
was  the  commander-in-chief,  and  what  was  the  amount  of  the 

B  force  under  his  command  1  What  Asiatic  cities  first  fell  into 
the  hands  of  the  crusaders  7  What  extraordinary  circum- 
stances attended  the  siege  of  Antiochia  1  On  what  general 

c  was  the  principality  of  that  district  conferred  1  By  whom 
was  another  principality  established  1  Describe  the  capture 
of  Jerusalem.  What  dignity  was  offered  to  Godfrey  de 

D    Bouillon  1    By  whom,  and  under  what  circumstances,  was  the 

Caliph  of  Egypt  defeated  1  By  whom  was  Godfrey  succeeded  1 

[179]     What  cities  were  added  to  the  kingdom  of  Jerusalem  by 

A  the  new  sovereign  1  Into  how  many  districts  was  the  king- 
dom now  divided  7 

The  Second  Crusade. 

[180]     What  circumstance  occasioned  the  second  Crusade  1    By 
B     what  sovereigns  was  it  undertaken,  and  at  whose  instance  1 
c    What  fate  befell  the  German  division  of  the  army  7    What 
was  the  result  of  this  expedition  7 

The  Third  Crusade. 

[181]     By  what  monarch  were  the  claims  of  «Egypt  to  Syria  and 

D    Palestine  revived  1    What  was  the  result  of  his  operations  7 

[182]     What  circumstance  occasioned  the  third  Crusade  1    By 

A    what  sovereigns  was  it  undertaken  7    How  did  Frederick  I. 

lose  his  life  1 

[183]     What  order  of  knighthood  was  instituted  by  his  son  7    On 

B    what  occasion  was  the  banner  of  Austria  insulted,  and  by 

o    whom  7    On  what  terms  was  a  truce  concluded  with  Saladin  7 

What  became  of  the  island  of  Cyprus  7     What  happened  to 

Richard  on  his  return  from  Palestine  7 

The  (so-named}  Fourth  Crusade. 

[184]    By  what  sovereign  were  fresh  bands  of  crusaders  sent  out  7 

D    Of  what  cities  did  they  regain  possession  7  By  what  nations 

was  the  fourth  crusade  undertaken  7    Did  they  reach  Jeru- 

A    salem7    What  empire  did  they  found  7    Who  was  elected 

emperor,  and  what  territories  were  assigned  to  him  7     What 

portions  were  assigned  severally  to  the  Venetians,  French, 

and  Lombards  7     What  noble  obtained  the  largest  share,  and 

B    what  kingdom  did  he  found  7    By  whom  was  a  Greek  empire 

established  at  Nicsea  7     Was  any  other  independent  empire 

founded  in  Asia  7    By  whom  was  the  Latin  empire  destroyed  7 

The  Crusade  of  Frederick  II. 

[185]  What  unsuccessful  attempts  to  regain  Palestine  had  been 
c  made  previously  to  the  Crusade  of  Frederick  II.  7  Whatoc- 
D  currence  induced  the  pope  to  urge  on  Frederick  the  necessity 


186 191.]  OF    MEDIEVAL    HISTORY.  189 

of  fulfilling  the  promise  made  at  his  coronation'?    What  cir- 
cumstance compelled  him  to  defer  the  expedition,  and  in  what 
A    light  was  his  conduct  viewed  by  the  pope  1    Did  he  revisit 
Palestine  1 

The  Sixth  Crusade. 

[186]     What  causes  occasioned  the   sixth  Crusade7?     By  what 

B    sovereign  was  it  undertaken  1    Where  did  he  first  land,  and 

c    what  success  attended  his  operations  in  that  country  1    What 

check  did  he  receive,  and  on  what  conditions  was  he  released 

from  captivity  7    How  was  he  employed  after  his  liberation  1 

The  Seventh  Crusade. 

[187]    By  whom,  and  under  what  circumstances,  was  the  seventh 

D    Ci  usade  undertaken  1    What  was  his  fate  1    In  what  year  did 

the  last  of  the  Christian  possessions  in  Palestine  fall  into 

the  hands  of  the  Mamelukes  1    What  was  the  name  of  this 

fortress  1 

Results  of  the  Crusades. 

[188]     In  what  manner  was  the  hierarchy  affected  by  the  Cru- 

A    sades  ?    Mention  another  circumstance  by  which  the  author- 
ity of  the  pope  over  the  clergy  was  augmented.     By  what 
circumstances  was  the  wealth  of  the  clergy  increased  1    Men- 
tion an  important  result  of  the  wars  against  the  infidels  as  re- 
[189]  gards  the  extension  of  Christian  influence. 

B        How  was  the  position  of  the  European  sovereigns  affected 

by  the  Crusades  1 
[190]     What  were  the  consequences  of  the  Crusades  to  the  nobili- 

c  tyl  Describe  the  development  of  the  knightly  power.  In 
what  manner  were  the  distinctive  forms  of  nobility  created1? 

D  Mention  the  degrees  of  chivalry.  Describe  the  institution  of 
the  order  of  Knights  Hospitallers.  Were  they  known  by  any 
other  name  1  Into  how  many  classes  were  they  divided,  and 
what  were  the  duties  of  each  class  1  Into  what  sections  was 

A  the  order  again  subdivided'?  In  what  countries  did  the 
Knights  Hospitallers  establish  themselves  after  the  loss  of 

B  Palestine  1  .  By  whom  were  they  deprived  of  the  last  of  their 
settlements?  Describe  the  origin  of  the  order  of  Knights 
Templars.  Whence  did  they  derive  their  name  ?  In  what 
country  did  they  seek  an  asylum  after  the  loss  of  the  Holy 

o  Land,  and  what  was  their  fate?  At  what  period  was  the 
Teutonic  order  founded,  and  by  whom  1  For  what  benevo- 
lent purpose  was  it  established  1  Of  what  country  were  all 
the  knights  natives  1  What  was  the  title  of  their  president  ? 
By  whom  was  the  residence  of  the  order  removed  from  Jeru- 
salem, and  to  what  place  was  it  transferred  1  What  country 
was  conquered  by  the  knights,  and  in  what  city  did  they  es- 

D  tablish  their  residence  after  that  conquest  1  What  effect  had 
the  establishment  of  these  orders  on  European  society? 
What  service  did  they  render  in  Palestine  1 

[191]     What  effect  had  the  Crusades  on  the  Burgher  order  1    To 
what  circumstances  do  you  ascribe  the  growth  and  prosperity 


19C  QUESTIONS    TO    HANDBOOK  [192 — 200. 

A.  of  their  cities  1  How  was  the  peasant  order  affected  by  the 
Crusades  1 

Consequences  to  Trade  and  Manufactures. 

[192]     By  what  nations  were  important  commercial  privileges  ac- 
B    quired  during  the  period  of  the  Crusades  1     In  what  coun- 
tries did  the  Venetians  establish  colonies  during  the  fourth 
c    Crusade  1    At  what  period,  and  by  whom,  were  they  expelled 
from    Constantinople  1    What  circumstances  rendered  this 
disaster  comparatively  unimportant  7 

[193]     To  what  route  had  the  overland  trade  been  confined  in 
D    former  days,  and  into  what  other  channels  was  it  directed 

during  the  period  of  the  Crusades  7 

[194]     When  was  this  commercial  intercourse  fully  developed  1 
A     What  manufactures  were  introduced  into  Europe,  and  to  what 
countries  was  European  produce  exported  during  this  period  7 
What  was  the  result  of  this  manufacturing  prosperity  7 
[195]     By  what  circumstances  was  the  mass  of  geographical  in- 
B    formation  augmented  7  To  what  traveller  was  Europe  indebted 
for  information  on  this  subject  7 

§  42.  The  German  Empire  under  Loiliar  [Lolhaire]  the  Saxon. 
[196]  Who  were  nominated  as  his  successors  by  Henry  V.,  and 

c  on  whom  did  the  choice  of  the  electors  fall  1  What  conces- 
sions did  he  make  to  the  pope  7  On  whom  did  Lothar  bestow 
the  hand  of  his  daughter  and  the  dukedom  of  Saxony  7 

D  What  service  did  his  son-in-law  render  to  Lothar  7  How  often 
did  Lothar  visit  Rome,  and  what  was  his  object  on  each  of 
these  occasions  7 

$  43.     The  German  Empire  under  the  Hohenstaufen. 

[198]  Who  ascended  the  German  throne  after  Lothar's  death  7 
A  What  became  of  Henry  the  Proud  7  On  whom  was  his  duke- 
dom of  Bavaria  conferred  7  By  whom  was  the  war  carried  on 
B  after  Henry's  death  7  What  remarkable  circumstance  attend- 
ed the  capture  of  Weinsberg  7  What  name  was  given  to  the 
hill  in  commemoration  of  this  event  7  To  whom  was  the 
dukedom  of  Saxony  restored  7  In  what  respect  was  Conrad 
inferior  in  dignity  to  his  predecessors  7  Had  this  happened 
on  any  previous  occasion  7 

[199]  By  whom  was  Conrad  succeeded  7  In  what  manner  was 
c  he  connected  with  each  of  the  rival  houses  7  How  did  he  en- 
deavor to  effect  a  reconciliation  between  the  two  factions  7 
On  whom  was  Bavaria  bestowed,  and  how  was  the  Margrave 
of  Austria  indemnified  for  the  loss  7  What  was  the  great  ob- 
ject of  the  new  emperor's  policy  7  How  many  times  did  he 
visit  Italy  7 

[200]     What  cities  were  taken  in  his  first  campaign  7     For  what 

A,  B  purpose  was  he  summoned  to  Rome,  and  what  measures  did 
he  adopt  on  entering  that  city  7  What  homage  did  Frederick 
render  to  the  pope  7  What  calamity  compelled  him  to  return 
to  Germany  7  By  what  maniage  did  he  reunite  the  kingdoms 
of  Germany  and  Burgundy  7  What  duke  was  elevated  to  the 
rank  of  king? 


201 211.]  OF    MEDIAEVAL    HISTORY.  191 

[201]     To  what  city  did  Frederick  lay  siege  in  his  second  Italian 
c     campaign  1     What  were  the  principal  conditions  of  the  capi- 
tulation signed  by  the  inhabitants  1     At  what  diet  were  the 
D    relations  of  Italy  to  the  emperor  settled  1     What  attempt  on 
the  part  of  the  Milanese  occasioned  a  fresh  war  1     What  was 
A    the  fate  of  Milan  1    Which  of  the  two  popes  elected  by  the 

college  of  cardinals  was  supported  by  Frederick  1 
[202J     What  occurred  during  Frederick's  third  visit  to  Italy  1 
[203]     What  pope  was  placed  on  the  papal  throne  in  Frederick's 
B    fourth  Italian  campaign  ]     What  disaster  compelled  him  to 
recross  the  Alps  7     What  circumstance  occasioned  the  revolt 
of  the  Lombard  cities,  and  what  were  the  results  of  that 
movement  1 

[204]     By  whom  was  Frederick  abandoned  in  his  fifth  campaign  1 
c    What  were  the  consequences  of  this  defection  7  At  what  place 
was  a  formal  peace  concluded  with  the  Lombards'?     What 
were  the  conditions  of  this  new  treaty  1 

[205]     What  measures  were  adopted  by  Frederick  on  his  return 
D,  A  to  Germany  7     What  became  of  Henry  the  Lion  7     In  what 
court  did  he  seek  an  asylum  1    On  whom  were  Bavaria  and 
Saxony  bestowed  1    What  occurred  at  the  diet  of  Mainz  1 
[206]     How  was  Frederick  received  by  the  Italians  on  his  sixth 
visit  to  Italy  1    To  whom  did  he  marry  his  eldest  sou  Henry  1 
Where  was  the  marriage  celebrated  7 

[207]     What  office  had  Henry  filled  during  the  absence  of  his 
B    father  in  Palestine  1    What  was  the  result  of  his  visit  to  Na- 
ples 7     Who  was  placed  on  the  Sicilian  throne  1     Where  did 
c    Henry  receive  the  imperial  crown  1    Whence  did  he  derive 
funds  for  a  second  campaign  in  Italy  1     What  was  the  result 
D    of  that  campaign'?     What  acts  of  cruelty  were  perpetrated 
by  Henry,  and  how  was  he  punished  by  the  pope  1     What 
cherished  plan  of  Henry's  was  rendered  abortive,  and  by 
A    what  circumstance  1    Where  did  he  die,  and  what  feelings 

were  excited  by  his  death  1 
[208]     What  was  the  fate  of  Henry  the  Lion  7 
[209]     What  two  princes  were  elected  to  fill  the  vacant  throne  7 
B    By  what  party  was  each  of  them  supported  7     To  whose  arbi- 
tration was  the  disputed  election  referred,  and  how  did  he 
decide  7     What  was  the  fate  of  Philip  7 

[210]     What  was  the  first  act  of  Otho's  reign  7    By  what  means 
c    did  he  effect  a  reconciliation  with  the  house  of  Hohenstaufen  7 
D    What  insult  did  he  offer  to  the  pope,  and  how  was  it  avenged  7 
A    Where  did  Otho  die,  and  under  what  circumstances  7 
[211]     What  promises  were  made  to  the  pope  by  Frederick  II.  on 
B    his  accession  7     Were  these  engagements  fulfilled  7     In  what 
condition  did  Frederick  find  Apulia  on  his  return  from  Pales- 
tine 7     Through  whose  intervention  did  he  effect  a  reconcilia- 
tion with  the  pope  7     What  important  reform  was  effected  in 
c    Apulia  7     What  was  the  fate  of  Frederick's  son  Henry  7     On 
whom,  and  subject  to  what  conditions    was  the  duchy  of 
Brunswick  Lflneburg   conferred  7     For  what  purpose,   and 
with  what  result,  did  Frederick  visit  Italy  7    Who  acted  as 
D    regent  during  his  absence  7     What  circumstance  retarded  the 
surrender  of  Milan  7 


192  QUESTIONS    TO    HANDBOOK  [212 221 

[212]  "What  success  attended  the  endeavors  of  the  pope  to  place 
a  rival  sovereign  on  the  German  throne  ?  By  what  tribes  was 
the  North-East  of  Europe  overrun  at  this  time  1  How  far  did 
they  penetrate,  and  where  did  they  engage  the  Germans'? 

[213]     By  whom  was  Gregory  IX.  succeeded,  and  what  was  the 

B     policy  of  the  new  pontiff?     Who  was  elected  in  opposition  to 

Frederick,  and  by  what  nick-name  was  he  distinguished  1 

c    How  long  did  he  survive  his  election  ?   Who  was  then  chosen, 

and  by  what  electors  ?     Who  was  left  to  oppose  the  usurper 

in  Germany  1    By  what  generals  was  Frederick  assisted  in 

the  Lombard  war  1    Where  did  Frederick  die  1 

[214]     What  circumstance   induced  Conrad   to  quit   Germany'? 

D,  A  What  issua  did  he  leave  1  By  what  public  acts  was  the  reign 
of  William  of  Holland  distinguished  ?  What  was  his  fate  1 

§  44.     The  Interregnum  in  Germany. 

[215]     On  whom  did  the  choice  of  the  electors  fall  after  William's 
B    death  ?    What  was  the  condition  of  the  empire  at  this  period  1 
Which  of  the  rival  sovereigns  was  afterwards  set  aside  by  the 
electors,  and  on  whom  did  their  choice  then  fall  1 

§  45.     The  kingdom  of  the  Two  Sicilies. 

[216]     By  whom  was  the  kingdom  of  the  Two  Sicilies  founded  1 
c    Who  were  his  immediate  successors  1    By  whom,  and  for  how 

long,  was  the  Sicilian  throne  usurped  1 

[217]     What  reforms  were  effected  by  Frederick  I.  (Hohenstau- 
A    fen)  1    Who  was  Manfred,  and  what  was  his  fate  1    Who  was 

Conradin  1 

[218]     By  whom  was  he  assisted,  what  battle  did  he  fight,  and 

B    what  was  his  fate  1     To  whom  did  he  bequeath  his  claims  1 

Who  wore  the  Sicilian  crown  at  this  time  1    How  was  the 

murder  of  Conradin  avenged  ?     What  division  of  the  Sicilian 

empire  now  took  place  7 

§  46.     fiance. 

[219]     By  what  surname  was  Louis  VI.  distinguished'?     By  what 
c    measures  was  the  sovereign  authority  consolidated  during  his 
reign  1    By  whom,  and  subject  to  what  conditions,  was  Nor- 
mandy held  at  this  time  1     Were  any  attempts  made  to  alter 
this  arrangement  1 

[220]     By  whom  was  Louis  VII.  persuaded  to  take  part  in  the 
D    second  Crusade  1     Who  administered  the  affairs  of  his  king- 
A    dom  during  his  absence  1     What  portion  of  France  was  an- 
nexed to  England  during  his  reign,  and  under  what  circum- 
stances 1 

[221]     With  whom  did  Philip  II.  quarrel,  and  what  attempt  did 

he  make  in  consequence  of  this  dispute  1    What  punishment 

was  inflicted  on  John,  king  of  England,  and  for  what  crime'? 

What  advantage  did  the  king  of  France  gain  by  this  arrange- 

B    ment  ?     By  whom,  and  under  what  circumstances,  was  the 

crown  of  England  offered  to  Philip  7     On  what  terms  was  an 

arrangement  subsequently  effected'?     What  advantage  was 

c    gained  by  Philip,  and  what  use  did  he  make  of  if?     What 

D    religious '  war  raged  during  the  progress  of  these  events? 


222—232.]  OF   MEDIJEVAL   HISTORY.  193 

A  "What  steps  were  taken  by  the  pope  to  check  the  progress  of 
heresy  1  What  changes  took  place  at  this  time  in  the  politi- 
cal and  ecclesiastical  condition  of  France  1 

[222J     By  whom  was  a  fresh  crusade  against  the  Albigenses  un- 
dertaken 1 

[223]     By  what  surname  is  Louis  IX.  known  in  history?    Under 
B    whose  guardianship  did  he  commence  his  reign  1    "What  be- 
came of  the  Albigenses  1    On  what  terms  was  peace  esta- 
c    blished  with  England  ?    What  measures  were  adopted  for  the 
preservation  of  peace  at  home  1 

§  47.     England. 

[224,  A]    Trace  the  pedigree  of  Henry  II.  and  Stephen. 
[225]    What  changes  were  made  by  William  the  Conqueror  in 
B    the  constitution  of  England  1    What  measures  did  he  adopt 
for  the  security  of  his  throne  ? «  Under  what  title  does  the 
register  of  the  lands  of  England  still  exist  1 
[226]    By  whom  was  William  I.  succeeded,  and  whom  did  he  ex- 
c    elude  from  the  succession  ? 

[227]  How  did  Henry  I.  obtain  the  crown  1  Did  he  commit  any 
other  act  of  usurpation  1  What  cruel  punishment  was  inflict- 
D  ed  on  Robert  1  To  what  public  bodies  were  privileges  granted 
by  Henry  1  Who  was  recognized  as  his  successor  by  the  no- 
bles 1  What  change  did  this  recognition  effect  in  the  consti- 
tution of  England! 

[228]    By  whom  was  the  succession  disputed  1    What  was  the 
A    result  of  this  opposition  1 

[229]  What  dominions  were  inherited  by  Henry  II.  from  his 
father  and  mother  1  Did  he  not  also  hold  certain  provinces 
in  right  of  his  wife  1  By  whom  were  the  attempts  of  Henry 
B  to  restrict  the  privileges  of  the  clergy  successfully  resisted7? 
What  was  his  fate,  and  how  was  Henry  punished  for  his  par- 
ticipation in  this  bloody  act  1  To  what  unhappy  circumstance 
do  you  attribute  the  death  of  Henry  1 

[230]    What  prerogative  of  the  English  crown  was  alienated  by 
c    Richard  1. 1    How  long  did  he  remain  in  Palestine,  and  what 

befell  him  on  his  journey  homewards  1 

[231]     Why  was  John  deprived  of  his  French  fiefs  1    By  what 

D    pope,  and  for  what  offence,  was  he  excommunicated'?    On 

A    what  terms  was  a  reconciliation  with  the  pope  effected  1 

Wjiat  important  public  instrument  did  he  endeavor  to  set 

aside,  and  with  what  success  1  By  what  disease  was  his  death 

occasioned  1 

232]     How  old  was  Henry  III.  when  he  ascended  the  throne  1 
Was  there  not  a  rival  candidate  1    By  whom  was  he  com- 
pelled to  renounce  his  claims  1    How  was  the  incapacity  of 
B    Henry  manifested  1    What  was  the  result  of  the  discontent 
occasioned  by  his  misgovernment  1    By  whom  was  this  insur- 
c    rection  headed  1    What  measures  was  the  king  compelled  to 
adopt?    What  occasioned  the  battle  of  Lewes'?    On  what 
conditions  was  the  king  liberated  1    Was  any  other  member 
of  the  royal  family  taken  prisoner?    What  important  change 
was  effected  in  the  constitution  during  t*  is  reign  ?    By  whom 


194  QUESTIONS    TO    HANDBOOK  [233 237. 

D  was  this  measure  introduced  1  Who  commanded  the  royal- 
ists at  the  hattle  of  Evesham  1  In  what  year  was  that  battle 
fought,  and  with  what  results  ?  What  person  of  note  was 
slain  ? 

§  48.     Spain. 

[233]    With  what  empire  did  the  Arabian  kingdom  of  Spain  con- 

A  tinue  in  close  connection  until  the  end  of  this  period  1  From 
what  event  do  you  date  the  gradual  decline  of  Moorish  power 
both  in  Africa  and  the  peninsula  1  To  what  circumstances 
do  you  ascribe  the  gradual  preponderance  of  Christianity  over 
Islamism  in  Spain  1 
[234]  By  whom,  and  into  how  many  sovereignties,  was  the  king- 

B  dom  of  Leon  and  Castille  divided  ?  By  whom  were  they  re- 
united 1  What  provinces  were  added  to  them  1  By  w  horn 
was  the  conquest  of  these  provinces  principally  achieved  1 

c  What  Spanish  sovereign  was  elected  King  of  Germany? 
When  did  Navarre  cease  to  be  an  independent  kingdom  1 
What  provinces  were  added  to  the  kingdom  of  Arragon  1  By 

D  whom,  and  under  what  circumstances,  were  these  provinces 
annexed'?  What  Spanish  monarch  became  King  of  Sicily? 
By  whom  had  he  been  nominated  heir  to  the  Neapolitan 
crown  1  What  event  placed  him  on  the  throne  1 

$  49.    Portugal. 

[235]  Whence  does  Portugal  derive  its  name  1  To  whom  was  a 
grant  of  territory  first  made  in  that  country?  What  were  its 
A  boundaries  ?  What  was  its  capital  ?  Who  first  assumed  the 
title  of  King  of  Portugal  ?  By  what  fortunate  events  was  he 
enabled  to  extend  the  boundaries  of  his  infant  kingdom  ? 
How  did  he  obtain  the  recognition  of  his  title  by  the  pope  ? 
From  what  public  body  did  he  procure  a  constitution  for  his 
new  kingdom?  What  city  did  he  wrest  from  the  infidels? 
By  whom  was  he  aided  in  this  exploit?  How  did  he  further 
enlarge  his  kingdom  ? 

$  50.     The  Byzantine  empire. 

[236]    By  whom  was  Isaac  Comnenus  placed  on  the  imperial 

B  throne?  Did  he  retain  the  crown  long?  Whither  did  he 
retire  ?  Who  was  then  invested  with  the  purple  ?  To  whom 
did  he  bequeath  the  imperial  dignity,  and  on  what  conditions  ? 

c  What  was  the  conduct  of  the  empress  ?  By  whom  was  her 
husband  defeated  and  imprisoned  ?  In  what  state  did  he  find 
the  capital  on  his  return  ?  What  dreadful  punishment  was 

D  inflicted  on  him  ?  In  what  condition  was  the  empire  when 
the  Comneni  again  ascended  the  throne  ?  By  what  emperors 
of  that  race  were  the  encroachments  of  the  enemies  of  the 
empire  successfully  resisted  ?  From  what  quarters,  and  by 

A    whom,  were  these  attacks  made?    To  what  circumstances  do 

you  attribute  the  feebleness  of  the  empire  at  this  time  ?  What 

was  the  fate  of  Alexius  II.  ?    How  long  did  the  last  of  the 

Comneni  reign,  and  by  whom  was  he  superseded  ? 

[237]    Who  was  the  first  emperor  of  the  house  of  Angelus,  and 


238 244.]  OF    MEDIAEVAL    HISTORY.  195 

by  whom  was  he  set  aside  1    For  what  reason  1    What  cruel- 
ties were  inflicted  on  him  1    By  whom,  and  for  what  purpose, 
was  the  fourth  (so-called)  Crusade  undertaken'? 
[238]     Give  some  account  of  the  Latin  empire,  and  those  of 
Nicsea  and  Trebizond. 

§  51.    The  Abbasides. 
[239]    By  what  people  and  in  what  year  was  the  caliphate  of  the 

c  Abbasides  extinguished  1  What  city  was  taken  by  the  in- 
vaders 1  What  cruel  punishment  was  inflicted  on  the  last  of 
the  caliphs  1  What  member  of  the  royal  family  escaped  the 
general  destruction  1  In  what  country  and  during  what  peri- 
od did  the  descendants  of  this  prince  continue  to  exercise 

D  authority  7  What  was  the  nature  of  their  supremacy  7  What 
African  dynasties  became  extinct  during  this  and  the  preced- 
ing period  7  By  what  dynasties  was  the  whole  of  Arabian 
Africa  now  shared  1 

§  52.     The  Seldschuks. 
[240]    Who  were  the  Seldschuks  1  What  countries  did  they  sub- 

A  due,  and  under  what  commander'?  Where  did  they  establish 
their  head-quarters  1  Of  what  other  countries  did  they  make 

B  themselves  masters  1  Into  how  many  governments  was  this 
empire  divided  after  the  death  of  Malek  1  What  was  the  ex- 
tent of  their  empire  in  its  most  prosperous  days  1  Into  whose 
hands  did  these  small  governments  fall  during  the  Crusades  1 
Which  of  them  continued  to  exist,  in  what  condition,  and 
how  long  1 

$  53.     The  Mongols. 
[241]    Who  were  the  Mongols,  and  what  countries  did  they  in- 

c  habit7?  Who  was  the  most  renowned  of  their  chieftains'? 
What  title  did  they  confer  on  him  7  What  countries  did  he 

D  conquer'?  What  Russian  prince  was  overthrown  by  him'? 
What  countries  were  overrun  by  the  sons  of  Dschingis-Khan  1 
What  bloody  victory  did  they  gain  1  Where  were  they  de- 
feated, and  what  measures  did  they  adopt  in  consequence  of 
this  check  1  Was  this  operation  rendered  necessary  by  any 

A  other  circumstance  7  What  dynasty  did  they  extinguish,  and 
in  what  year  1  In  what  century  had  their  empire  reached  its 
widest  limits'?  Describe  its  boundaries.  Where  did  the 
great  khan  reside  1  To  whom  was  the  administration  of  the 
provinces  committed  1 

§  54.     Scandinavia. 

[242]  How  long  did  Iceland  remain  independent,  and  by  whom 
B  was  it  at  last  st.bjugated  1  By  what  peculiarity  were  its  man- 
ners, language,  and  literature  distinguished  1  Is  there  any 
exception  to  this  general  remark  7 

[243]  Who  was  the  last  of  the  legitimate  descendants  of  Harold 
Harfagr  7  and  what  was  the  condition  of  Norway  after  his 
death  1  What  islands  were  annexed  to  the  Norwegian  crown  1 
Was  any  portion  of  their  empire  alienated,  and  to  whom  1 

[244]    By  what  circumstances  were  the  disturbances  in  Sweden 


196  QUESTIONS   TO   HANDBOOK  [245 249. 

c    during  this  period  chiefly  occasioned  7  What  was  the  frequent 

result  of  these  disputes  1 

[245]    What  countries  were  comprehended  under  the  name  of 
D    Denmark  7    What  additions  were  made  to  the  Danish  empire 
A    by  conquest^    To  whom,  and  under  what  circumstances,  was 
the  greater  part  of  this  conquered  territory  afterwards  sur- 
rendered 1    To  what  circumstance  do  you  ascribe  the  cessa- 
tion of  intercourse  between  Denmark  and  England  7    With 
what  country  was  an  intimate  connection  formed,  and  what 
were  its  results'? 

§  55.    Russia. 

[246]    Which  were  the  two  great  principalities  of  Russia  1    How 
B    many  inferior  principalities  were  there  1    By  what  people  was 
the  whole  of  Russia  occupied  in  1238 1    What  cities  did  they 
destroy  1    Which  of  the  Russian  states  retained  its  independ- 
ence 1    What  important  position  did  it  occupy  in  1267 1    On 
what  conditions  were  the  grand  principalities  permitted  to 
c    remain  1    What  country  was  conquered  during  this  period  of 
dependence,  and    by  whom1?    What  brilliant   victory  was 
gained  by  his  son,  and  what  surname  was  given  to  him  in 
consequence  of  this  success  1 


Poland  under  the  Piasts. 

[247]    To  what  favorable  circumstance  do  you  attribute  the  rapid 

improvement  of  Poland  during  this  period  1    What  countries 

did  she  now  comprehend  1    What  was  the  capital  of  Eastern 

Pomerania7    Were  there  any  obstacles  to  her  advancement"? 

Into  how  many  new  sovereignties  was  the  dukedom  divided 

D    after  the  death  of  Boleslav  III.  1    Name  them.    What  priv- 

A    ilege  was  enjoyed  by  the  eldest  son  1    By  whom  were  the 

knights  of  the  Teutonic  order  called  in,  and  how  were  they 

rewarded  1    What  were  the  results  of  the  invasion  of  Poland 

and  Silesia  by  the  Mongols  7 

§  57.     Prussia. 

[248]  Who  were  the  Prussians,  and  what  country  did  they  in- 
B  habit  1  What  measures  did  they  compel  Conrad,  duke  of 
Masovia,  to  adopt  1  How  long  did  this  struggle  continue  7 
By  whom  were  the  Teutonic  knights  supported  1  What  cities 
did  they  found  in  Prussia  1  By  whom  was  the  government 
of  the  conquered  territory  administered'?  Where  was  the 
order  finally  established,  and  in  what  year  7 

§  58.     Hungary  under  the  Arpads. 

[249]    By  how  many  kings  of  the  Arpadic  family  was  Ladislav 
c    the  Saint  succeeded  1    In  what  year  did  this  family  become 
extinct  1    With  what  nations  were  the  Hungarians  engaged 
D    in  war  during  this  period  7    By  what  monarch  was  a  charter 
granted  to  the  Hungarians  7    What  terrible  calamity  was  ex- 
perienced by  the  nation  7    Who  was  king  of  Hungary  at  that 
tune,  and  how  did  he  behave  7 


250 — 252.]  OF   MEDLEY AL   HISTORY.  197 

§  59.     Religion,  Arts,  Manufactures,  tf*c.,  during  the  Third 

Period. 
[250]    What  attempts  were  made  by  Gregory  VII.,  and  by  whom 

A    were  they  followed  up  7     What  effects  were  produced  by  their 

B  exertions,  towards  the  end  of  this  period  1  By  what  arrange- 
ments was  the  ecclesiastical  authority  of  the  popes  strength- 

c  ened  1  Name  the  religious  orders  of  chivalry  established  in 
Palestine,  Spain,  and  Livonia  1  What  fresh  orders  were  cre- 

D  ated  from  time  to  time  1  What  was  the  result  of  attempts  to 
reunite  the  Greek  and  Latin  Churches  1  What  religious 
communities  were  partially  reconciled  to  the  Church  of  Rome  7 
By  whose  teaching  in  the  twelfth  century  was  a  variety  of 

A    sects  produced  1    Name  these  sects.    What  measures  were 

adopted  for  their  suppression  7 
[251]    Mention  the  distinguishing  political  characteristic  of  this 

B    and  the  following  period.     What  results  were  produced  by 

c    this  spirit  1    In  what  practice  do  we  find  the  germ  of  chival- 

D  ry  1  To  whom  is  it  indebted  for  its  development  1  Describe 
the  degrees  of  chivalry.  What  were  its  chief  duties  1  How 

A  was  the  knight  rewarded  for  the  faithful  discharge  of  these 
duties  1  What  was  the  origin  of  tournaments  1  At  what  pe- 
riod did  those  exercises  begin  to  assume  a  systematic  charac- 
ter 1  In  what  part  of  the  empire  was  the  establishment  of  a 

B  free  Burgher  order  most  general  7  To  what  circumstance  do 
you  attribute  this  7  Where  did  Frederick  I.  hold  a  diet  dur- 
ing his  second  Italian  campaign  7  What  was  the  result  7 
Who  were  appointed  to  execute  the  emperor's  decrees  7  By 
whom,  and  for  what  reason,  were  those  officers  superseded  7 
In  whose  hands  had  the  government  hitherto  been  7  By 
whom  were  the  Patricians  compelled  to  receive  a  more  demo- 
cratic constitution  7  What  name  was  given  to  the  chief  pop- 
ular magistrate  7  Of  whom  was  he  the  constant  opponent  7 

c  What  measure  was  adopted,  whenever  it  was  necessary 
that  the  contending  parties  should  act  in  concert  7  By  what 
name  did  they  designate  the  supreme  political  authority  7 
What  do  you  understand  by  the  term  "  Condottiere  7  "  What 
code  and  system  of  taxation  was  adopted  by  these  cities  7  In 
what  reign,  and  by  what  means,  did  the  German  cities  acquire 
similar  privileges  7  Mention  some  of  the  most  important  of 

D  these  privileges.  To  what  officer  was  the  conservation  of 
them  intrusted  7  By  whom  was  he  assisted  7  What  violent 
change  was  effected  in  the  fourteenth  century  7  By  whom 
were  political  privileges  granted  to  the  French  cities  7  By 

A  what  motives  were  they  induced  to  make  these  concessions  7 
How  was  the  executive  authority  divided  in  Arragon  7  At 
what  period  and  after  what  model  were  cities  founded  in  the 
north  and  east  of  Europe  7  What  advantage  was  obtained 
by  existing  communities  7  Was  the  attempt  to  emancipate 
the  cities  from  the  authority  of  their  feudal  sovereign  gener- 

B  ally  successful  7  In  what  country  especially  was  this  authority 
maintained  7  In  what  country  did  delegates  from  the  cities 
first  appear  at  diets  7  Was  this  practice  imitated  in  other 
countries  7 

[252]     From  what  materials  were  the  written  codes  of  this  period 


198  QUESTIONS   TO   HANDBOOK  [253 256. 

generally  compiled  ?    Mention  some  of  them  which  were  the 

c    work  of  private    individuals.     Give  examples  of  charters 

granted  by  kings  to  their  subjects.    What  changes  took  place 

in  the  administration  of  justice  towards  the  conclusion  of  this 

fried? 
By  whom  had  the  sciences  hitherto  been  exclusively  culti- 
vated 1    Under  whose  auspices  was  education  more  generally 

D  diffused  1  How  was  this  object  mainly  promoted  1  To  what 
circumstance  do  the  most  ancient  of  these  foundations  owe 
their  origin  1  Where  were  the  most  celebrated  theological, 
philosophical,  and  legal  schools  established  1  Who  were  the 
most  renowned  lecturers  at  these  schools  1  In  what  countries, 

A  and  after  what  model,  were  other  universities  founded  ?  Name 
some  of  the  most  remarkable.  By  whom  was  the  scholastic 
mode  of  treating  theological  subjects  introduced  ?  By  what 
writer  were  the  dogmas  of  Abelard  condemned  as  heretical  1 
In  what  estimation  were  the  writings  of  Peter  Lombard  held 
by  the  Church  ?  What  discovery  was  made  in  the  thirteenth 
century,  and  what  was  its  effect  on  the  scholastic  literature 

B  of  that  period  ?  Who  were  the  most  distinguished  professors 
of  philosophical  scholastics  1  What  studies  were  considered 
next  in  importance  to  theology  and  philosophy'?  In  what 
language  was  history  written  in" central  and  western  Europe  1 
By  whom  was  the  first  historical  work  in  the  vernacular  lan- 
guage published!  From  what  sources  was  mathematical 
science  derived  1  Who  was  the  most  celebrated  student  in 
this  department  1  Was  he  famous  for  proficiency  in  any  other 
science  ?  To  what  circumstance  do  you  ascribe  the  perfec- 
tion to  which  mechanics  were  brought?  What  important 

c    discovery  was  made  during  this  period  1    To  what  subjects 
was  Byzantine  literature  confined  1    Name  some  of  the  most 
distinguished  Byzantine  and  Arabian  writers. 
[264]     What  was  the  character  of  the  poetry  of  this  period  1   Un- 

D  der  what  dynasty  did  epic  and  lyric  poetry  attain  their  high- 
est degree  of  excellence  in  Germany  1  How  many  sorts  of 

A  epic  poetry  were  there  1  Name  some  of  the  most  distinguished 
professors  of  lyric  poetry.  What  specimen  do  we  possess  of 
the  poetical  contests  of  those  days  1  What  sort  of  poetry 
was  cultivated  in  the  south  of  France  1  What  name  was  given 
to  its  professors,  and  at  what  courts  did  they  recite  their  com- 
positions 1  Name  the  different  sorts  of  poetry  cultivated  at 
different  periods  in  the  north  of  France.  By  whom  was  it 
professed  1  Into  what  countries  did  the  minstrelsy  of  the 

B  Troubadours  travel  1  Mention  the  most  fruitful  subject  for 
romance  in  the  history  of  Castille.  Where  was  Scandinavian 
poetry  most  successfully  cultivated  ?  What  was  the  Edda  1 
[256]  From  what  country  was  the  German  or  new  Gothic  style 
of  architecture  imported?  By  whom  was  it  introduced? 
What  were  its  characteristics  ?  At  what  period  did  it  attain 

c  its  highest  perfection  ?  Mention  some  of  the  most  magnifi- 
cent specimens  of  Gothic  architecture  commenced  in  this 
century.  Were  secular  buildings  erected  on  a  similar  scale 
of  grandeur? 

[266]    Mention  some  of  the  other  arts  which  were  more  especially 


257 261.]  OF    MEDLEVAL    HISTORY.  199 

D  cultivated  during  this  period.  To  what  do  you  attribute  this 
preference  1  In  which  century  was  painting  on  glass  invent- 
ed'? When  and  by  whom  were  sculpture  and  painting 
elevated  to  the  rank  of  independent  arts  1  In  what  century 
were  companies  or  unions  of  painters  formed  1 
[257]  By  what  countries  was  the  Mediterranean  trade  chiefly 

A    carried  on 7     With  what  eastern  seaports'?     In  what  towns 

B    did  the  commerce  of  the  north  of  Europe  principally  nourish  7 

c  What  were  the  chief  stations  of  the  inland  trade  1  Between 
what  German  and  Italian  cities  was  a  commercial  league 
formed,  and  what  was  the  natural  result  of  this  policy  1  In 
what  respects  did  the  spirit  of  the  age  manifest  itself  among 
merchants  1  Where  was  this  especially  the  case  1  For  what 
purpose  were  Hansas  established  1  What  privileges  did  they 

D  enjoy  in  foreign  countries  1  What  was  the  object  of  provin- 
cial unions  1  What  great  commercial  union  was  formed  out 
of  these  two  elements  1  Of  what  nature  were  the  enactments 

A  respecting  maritime  enterprise  and  commerce  during  this  pe- 
riod 1  Were  any  branches  of  commercial  adventure  forbid- 
den by  the  Church  1  With  what  success  1 

[258]  What  circumstances  were  favorable  to  agriculture  during 
this  period  1  In  what  part  of  Europe  was  the  cultivation  of 
the  vine  most  successful  1  Where  were  mining  operations 

B  carried  on  most  vigorously  1  By  what  circumstance  was  the 
importance  of  manual  crafts  greatly  augmented  1  What  was 
their  mode  of  carrying  on  business  ?  Mention  the  principal 
sorts  of  manufacture,  and  state  in  what  countries  they  were 
carried  on  most  successfully.  Where  were  the  best  articles 

c  of  hardware  produced  1  By  what  city  was  the  trade  in  glass 
monopolized  1  Mention  the  circumstances  which  contributed 
to  the  advancement  of  commercial  prosperity  during  this 
period. 

^  60.     Germany  and  Switzerland. 

[259]     Name  the  seven  electorates,  distinguishing  between  the 

D    spiritual  and  temporal.    Mention  the  duchies  (with  their  cap- 

A    itals)  in  the  west,  south,  and  north.    Enumerate  the  Princi- 

B    palities,  Margravates,  Landgravates,  Burgravates,  Counties, 

c    Archbishoprics,  and  Bishoprics.     How  many  imperial  cities 

were  there  1    Mention  the  most  considerable.     Between  what 

sovereigns  was  the  kingdom  of  Burgundy  divided  after  its 

dismemberment  1 

[260]     In  what  century  was  the  right  of  election  transferred  from 
D    the  dukes  to  the  great  officers  of  the  imperial  household'? 
A    Name  these  officers.     Who  was  elected  King  of  Germany  af- 
ter the  death  of  Richard  of  Cornwall  1    By  whom  was  he  pro- 
posed 1  Who  refused  to  recognize  Rudolf?   For  what  reason  1 
B    How  was  he  punished  for  his  contumacy  ?     What  was  his 
fate  1    On  whom  did  Rudolf  confer  his  forfeited  principali- 
ties 1    What  seems  to  have  been  from  this  period  the  grand 
object  of  the  German  kings  1 

[261]     Through  whose  influence  was  Adolphus  of  Nassau  placed 

on  the  throne  1    By  what  measures  did  he  strengthen  the  in- 

c    fluence  of  his  family  7    How  did  these  proceedings  ultimately 


200  QUESTIONS   TO   HANDBOOK  [262 — 266. 

occasion  the  removal  of  Adolphus  from  the  German  throne  1 
Who  was  elected  in  his  place  'I  What  was  the  fate  of  Adol- 
phus^ 

[262]  What  success  attended  the  plans  of  Albert  I.  for  the  ag- 
grandizement of  his  house  1  What  claims  did  he  revive,  and 

D  with  what  success  1  What  circumstance  afforded  him  an  op- 
portunity of  placing  his  son  on  the  throne  of  Bohemia  1  How 

A  was  this  connection  dissolved  1  What  attempt  of  Albert  was 
resisted  by  the  three  forest  cantons  of  Switzerland  7  By 
whom  were  the  Swiss  oppressed  1  Who  laid  the  foundation 

B  of  the  Swiss  confederacy  1  What  happened  to  the  two  gov- 
ernors 1  What  was  the  fate  of  Albert  1. 7 

[263]  By  whom  was  he  succeeded  1  On  whose  motion  was  the 
new  sovereign  elected  7  What  success  attended  the  attempts 
of  Henry  to  extend  the  influence  of  his  family  1  To  what  cir- 
cumstances was  he  chiefly  indebted  for  this  good  fortune  1 

c    What  did  he  restore  7    How  was  he  enabled  to  effect  this  7 

What  project  was  interrupted  by  his  death  1 
[264]    By  whom  was  he  succeeded  1    By  what  parties  were  the 

D  new  kings  respectively  elected  1  With  what  nation  did  the 
house  of  Habsburg  engage  in  war  7  What  were  the  results 
of  the  battles  of  Morgarten  and  Mtihldorf  7  What  arrange- 

A  ment  was  made  between  the  two  kings  7  By  what  pope,  and 
for  what  offence,  was  Louis  excommunicated  7  To  whom  was 
the  German  crown  offered  7  What  respect  was  paid  by  Louis 
to  this  sentence  7  What  dignity  did  he  assume  at  Milan  7 
By  whom  was  he  crowned  at  Rome  7  Whom  did  he  place  on 
the  papal  throne  7  Why  did  he  return  to  Germany  7  Where 
was  the  first  electoral  diet  held  7  What  important  resolution 

B    was  passed  at  it  7    Which  of  the  electors  was  absent  7    How 

c  did  Louis  increase  the  possessions  of  his  family  7  Which  of 
these  measures  disgusted  the  German  nobles  7  What  was 
the  effect  of  this  distaste  7  On  whom  did  the  choice  of  thfe 
electors  fall  7  Who  was  elected  after  the  death  of  Louis  7 
By  what  party  7  How  was  the  contest  terminated  7 
[265]  From  whose  hands,  and  through  whom,  did  Charles  IV. 

D    receive  the  imperial  crown  7     To  what  subjects  did  he  devote 

A  his  chief  attention  7  What  measures  did  he  adopt  for  the 
promotion  of  this  object  7  What  were  the  provisions  of  this 
instrument  7  What  mode  of  proceeding  did  it  prescribe  on 
the  death  of  an  emperor  7  Where  was  the  coronation  to  take 

B  place  7  What  rank  was  assigned  to  the  electors  7  What 
plans  of  family  aggrandizement  were  pursued  by  Charles  7 
What  provinces  were  annexed  to  his  hereditary  dominions  7 
Where  was  the  first  German  university  founded  7  What 

o  other  plans  of  improvement  were  adopted  7  How  did  he  ob- 
tain the  funds  necessary  for  his  operations  7  Mention  some 
of  the  most  important  privileges  granted  to  the  imperial  cities. 

D  What  additions  were  made  to  the  aristocratic  order  7  Enu- 
merate the  confederacies  of  towns  and  those  of  the  nobility. 

[266]     By  whom  was  Charles  succeeded  7     What  sovereignties 

A  did  he  retain  7  What  addition  was  made  to  his  dominions  7 
What  union  was  formed  in  Swabia  7  Under  whose  auspices  7 
What  measure  was  adopted  by  Wenceslaus  in  consequence 


267 270.]  OF   MEDIJEVAL   HISTORY.  201 

of  this  proceeding  1    By  what  circumstances  was  the  dissolu- 

B  tion  of  the  confederacies  of  cities  occasioned  1  Between  what 
parties,  and  with  what  result,  was  the  battle  of  Sempach 

c  fought  1  T.o  whom  were  the  conquerors  chiefly  indebted  for 
their  victory  !  What  was  the  effect  of  a  second  victory  1  In 
what  light  was  Wenceslaus  regarded  by  his  subjects  1  Where 
did  he  usually  reside  1  What  measures  were  adopted  in  con- 
sequence of  his  incapacity  1 
[267]  How  did  Rupert  forfeit  the  confidence  of  the  nation  7 

D  What  measures  did  he  adopt  on  his  return  to  Germany'? 
Who  were  elected  after  his  death  !  How  many  kings  had 
Germany  at  this  time  1 

[268]     What  was  the  great  object  of  Sigismund's  reign1?    What 
practice  had  been  adopted  for  many  years  by  the  Roman  and 

B  French  colleges  of  cardinals  1  Where  was  a  council  held, 
and  with  what  results  1  How  many  rival  claimants  to  the 
popedom  were  there  at  this  time  1  What  measure  was  adopt- 
ed for  the  removal  of  these  irregularities  1  Where  was  the 
council  assembled,  and  in  what  year  1  What  were  its  three 

c  principal  objects  1  How  was  the  first  of  these  objects  attained  ! 
Who  were  the  Bohemian  reformers,  and  where  had  they 

D    learnt  their  doctrine  1     To  what  circumstance  do  you  ascribe 

A  the  ready  reception  of  these  doctrines  by  the  Bohemian  the- 
ologians 1  What  was  the  fate  of  the  two  reformers  !  To  what 

B  circumstance  do  you  attribute  the  miscarriage  of  the  third 
plan  1  Who  was  chosen  as  their  leader  by  the  disciples  of 
Huss  !  What  demand  was  made  by  them,  and  how  did  they 
act  when  it  was  refused  !  What  name  did  they  give  to  their 

c  camp  ?  Who  commanded  them  1  What  act  of  violence  did 
they  commit  1  Who  succeeded  Wenceslaus  in  his  hereditary 
dominions  1  How  was  he  received  by  the  Hussites  !  What 
was  the  cause  of  this  opposition!  Into  how  many  parties 

D    were  they  divided  after  Huss's  death  1    What  permission  did 

A    they  extort  from  the  council  of  Basle  1    To  whom  did  Sigis- 

mund  sell  the  electorate  of  Brandenburg  1 
[269]    Who  succeeded  Sigismund  on  the  German  throne  1   What 

question  did  he  revive  1 
[270]    By  whom  was  this  question  again  brought  forward  1    Of 

B  whom  did  he  undertake  the  guardianship  1  How  was  such 
a  measure  rendered  impracticable  !  What  other  plan  failed 
from  the  same  cause  !  What  was  the  condition  of  Germany 
at  this  time  1  With  what  Swiss  canton  did  Frederick  form 
an  alliance!  By  what  foreign  troops  was  he  supported! 

c  What  was  the  result  of  his  Swiss  campaign  1  What  measures 
were  adopted  by  Pope  Eugenius  IV.  with  reference  to  the 
council  of  Basle !  By  whom  was  he  succeeded  !  Through 
whose  intervention  was  a  concordat  concluded  between  the 
emperor  and  the  pope  1  What  effect  had  this  proceeding  on 

D  the  council  and  the  rival  pope  1  What  success  attended  the 
proclamation  of  a  crusade  against  the  Turks  1  What  reasons 

A  were  assigned  for  this  proclamation  1  Who  was  the  last  em- 
peror crowned  at  Rome !  How  did  Frederick  increase  his 

B  hereditary  possessions !  What  opposition  did  he  encounter 
in  Bohemia  and  Hungary  7  By  what  alliance  did  Frederick 

9* 


202  QUESTIONS    TO    HANDBOOK  [&71 277. 

acquire  the  Netherlands  and  Germany  1  Against  what  coun- 
try did  Maximilian  successfully  maintain  possession  of  these 
territories  1 

$  61.     The  States  of  Italy. 

[271]    By  what  circumstances  had  Venice  been  raised  to  the  rank 

c  of  a  first-rate  commercial  and  naval  power  7  What  islands 
and  seaports  had  she  acquired  1  With  what  state,  and  for 
how  many  years,  was  she  engaged  in  war  1  Where  was  peace 
concluded,  and  on  what  terms  1  To  what  circumstances  do 
you  chiefly  attribute  the  prosperity  of  Venice  7  When  were 

D  her  most  palmy  days  1  By  what  power  was  she  afterwards 
deprived  of  most  of  her  Greek  dominions  1  What  circum- 
stance completed  her  ruin  1  In  whom  was  the  sovereign  au- 
thority lodged  7  By  whom  were  they  chosen  1  What  change 
was  introduced  at  a  later  period 7 
[272]  By  whom  were  the  struggles  of  the  Milanese  parties  termi- 

A  nated  1  Who  were  the  heads  of  these  parties  1  What  mea- 
sures were  adopted  by  Henry  VII.  1  What  noble  family  be- 
came the  possessor  of  almost  the  whole  of  Upper  Italy  1  By 
what  means  7  On  whom  was  the  supreme  authority  conferred 
after  the  extinction  of  the  Visconti  1  What  change  did  he 
effect  in  the  tenure  of  the  dukedom  7 
[273]  What  advantages  did  Genoa  obtain  by  the  restoration  of 

B    the  Greek  empire  1    How  long  was  she  engaged  in  war  with 
Pisa,  and  with  what  results  1   To  what  causes  do  you  attribute 
her  weakness  1 
[274]    What  was  the  result  of  the  struggle  between  the  people  of 

c  Florence  and  the  nobles  1  Into  how  many  classes  were  the 
commons  divided  1  What  business  was  carried  on,  generally 
speaking,  by  the  members  of  the  higher  guilds'?  By  what 
family  was  this  aristocracy  of  wealth  headed  in  the  fifteenth 

D  century!  Who  laid  the  foundation  of  their  importance'? 
How  was  his  son  treated  by  the  other  bankers  7  What  dis- 
tinction was  afterwards  conferred  on  him  7  How  did  he  merit 

A  this  distinction  7  What  cities  did  he  embellish  7  By  whom 
was  he  succeeded  7  To  which  of  the  Medici  is  Florence  most 
indebted  7 

[275]    What  happened  in  the  March  of  Ancona,  and  other  parts 
of  the  States  of  the  Church,  during  the  residence  of  the  popes 

B    at  Avignon  7     What  was  the  condition  of  Rome  at  this  time  7 
What  title  was  assumed  by  a  plebeian  in  one  of  these  revolu- 
tions 7    At  what  period  were  the  States  of  the  Church  re- 
united 7    What  city  was  afterwards  added  to  them  7 
[276]     By  what  family  was  the  Neapolitan  throne  occupied  until 

c  1435  7  Who  conquered  the  country  in  that  year  7  To  whom 
did  he  bequeath  Naples  7  How  long  did  his  posterity  con- 
tinue to  reign  7 

[277]    To  what  kingdom  was  Sicily  annexed  7    When,  and  under 
what  circumstances  7 


278 — 286.]  OF   MEDIAEVAL   HISTORY.  203 

§  62.     France. 

[278]    From  what  country  did  Philip  III.  withdraw  his  army 
D    after  the  death  of  his  father  1    To  whom  did  he  marry  his 

son  7    What  unsuccessful  expedition  did  he  undertake  1 

[279]    By  whom  was  he  succeeded  7    Had  the  new  monarch  any 

other  kingdom  7     What  was  his  character  1    Of  what  English 

A    province  did  he  obtain  possession  '1    What  occasioned  the 

war  1    Why  did  Philip  abandon  Flanders  1    For  what  offence 

was  he  excommunicated,  and  how  did  he  avenge  himself? 

Where  did  the  next  pope  but  one  establish  his  residence  1 

B    How  long  did  the  pope  continue  to  reside  there  1    By  whom 

was  the  order  of  Knights  Templars  suppressed  1 
[280]     Who  succeeded  Philip  IV.  1    What  act  was  passed  in  the 
c    reign  of  Philip  V.  1    By  whom  was  Charles  IV.  succeeded  7 
On  whom  was  Navarre  settled?    When  was  it  reunited  to 
France  7 

[281,  D]     Give  the  pedigree  of  Philip  of  Valois. 
[282]     What  occasioned  the  war  between  England  and  France  1 
A    How  long  did  it  continue  7    With  whom  did  Edward  III.  of 
England  form  an  alliance  7    By  whom  were  they  commanded  1 
B    Where  were  the  English  victorious  1    Who  commanded  the 
English  army  7     What  important  town  fell  into  his  hands  1 
How  long  did  it  remain  in  possession  of  the  English  1     What 
provinces  were  added  by  Philip  to  the  possessions  of  the 
French  crown  1     What  right  was  conceded  to  him  by  the  es- 
tates of  the  realm  1 

[283,  c]    By  whom  was  he  succeeded  7    What  misfortune  befell 

him  1    Who  commanded  the  English  in  this  battle  1    What 

happened  in  France  during  his  captivity  1    By  whom  were 

the  insurgents  commanded  1    What  was  his  fate  1    On  what 

D    terms  was  peace  concluded  between  England  and  France  1 

What  concession  was  made  by  Edward  III.  1    On  what  terms 

was  liberty  offered  to  the  king  of  France  1   Where  did  he  die  1 

On  whom  did  he  bestow  the  dukedom  of  Burgundy  1 

[284]     What  distinguished  services  were  rendered  to  Charles  V. 

A    by  his  general  Bertrand  du  Guesclin  1 

[285]     Under  whose  guardianship  was  Charles  VI.  placed  1  What 

B    was  his  character  7    By  whom  was  the  right  of  his  guardians 

contested  1    What  was  the  effect  of  these  conflicting  claims  7 

What  was  the  fate  of  Orleans  7     What  important  victory  was 

c    gained  at  this  time  by  the  English  7    By  whom  was  the  Duke 

of  Burgundy  assassinated  7    To  whom  did  his  son  apply  for 

assistance  7    Whom  did  Henry  V.  of  England  marry  7    What 

important  advantage  did  he  gain  by  this  marriage  7    What 

issue  did  he  leave  7 

[286]    By  whom  was  Charles  VI.  succeeded  7    What   foreign 
D    monarch  was  now  proclaimed  king  of  France  7    Who  com- 
pelled the  English  to  raise  the  siege  of  Orleans  7     Where  was 
A     Charles  VII.  crowned  7     What  became  of  Joan  of  Arc  7    On 
what  terms  was  a  reconciliation  effected  between  Charles  VII. 
and  the  Duke  of  Burgundy  7     What  losses  of  territory  were 
sustained  by  the  English  7     To  what  circumstance  dp  you  as- 
cribe the  termination  of  the  war  7    How  was  a  standing  army 


204  QUESTIONS   TO   HANDBOOK  [287 295. 

B    first  organized  in  France  ?    "What  occasioned  the  estrange- 
ment between  Charles  and  his  son1?    At  whose  court  did  the 
Dauphin  seek  an  asylum  ? 
[287]     By  what  measures  did  Louis  XI.  attempt  to  establish  the 

c    absolute  power  of  the  crown  1    What  was  the  result  of  this 

D    policy  1    What  occasioned  the  dissolution  of  the  league  ?    Of 
what  rash  act  was  Louis  guilty  1    On  what  terms  did  he  re- 

A    gain  his  liberty  1    How  did  he  avenge  himself  1    Who  were 
victorious  at  the  battles  of  Granson  and  Murten  1    Where  did 

B     Charles  of  Burgundy  lose  his  life7?     What  became  of  the 

dukedom  of  Burgundy  1    What  territories  were  afterwards 

acquired  by  Austria  1    By  what  means  1    What  provinces 

were  annexed  to  France  1 

[288]    What  conquest  was  achieved  by  Charles  VIII.  1  By  whom 

c    was  he  compelled  to  abandon  it  1  What  line  expired  with  him  1 

§  63.     England  and  Scotland. 

[289]    What  province  was  annexed  to  the  English  crown  by  Ed- 

D    ward  I.I    What  title  was  assumed  by  his  son?    By  whom, 

and  in  whose  favor,  was  the  disputed  succession  to  the  throne 

of  Scotland  decided?    How  was  the  new  king's  breach  of 

A    faith  punished  1     Who  was  crowned  by  the  insurgent  Scots  1 

Who  succeeded  Edward  1    What  was  his  character  1    What 

advantage  was  taken  of  his  weakness  by  the  English  nobles 

and  by  the  Scots  1    Who  conspired  against  Edward  ?    What 

continental  troops  were  brought  against  him?    What  was  his 

fate? 

[290]     How  were   the  conspirators  punished  by  Edward  III.? 
B    Who  succeeded  Robert  Bruce  on  the  throne  of  Scotland  ?    In 
whose  favor  was  he  compelled  to  abdicate  ?     By  what  conces- 
sion had  Balliol  secured  the  favor  of  Edward  ?    How  long  did 
c    the  disputes  respecting  the  right  to  the  Scottish  throne  con- 
tinue ?    How  often,  and  for  what  purpose,  did  Edward  con- 
voke his  parliament?     What  division  of  the  great  council  of 
the  nation  took  place  in  this  reign  ? 

[291]     Whose  son  was  Richard  II.?    How  did  he  commence  his 
reign?    Did  he  continue  to  reign  wisely?     By  whom  was  he 
D    deprived  of  almost  all  his  authority  ?    Who  placed  the  reins 
of  government  again  in  his  hands  ?    By  whom  were  they  a 
A    second  time  wrested  from  him  ?    What  became  of  Richard  ? 
[292]     How  was  the  reign  of  Henry  IV.  disturbed  ?    Were  these 
B    attempts  successful  ?    By  whom  was  he  succeeded  ? 
[293]     What  brilliant  victory  did  Henry  V.  obtain  ?     What  prov- 
ince did  he  conquer  ?     Whom  did  he  marry  ?     What  impor- 
tant advantage  did  he  gain  by  this  marriage  ?    What  circum- 
stance prevented  his  availing  himself  of  it  ? 
[294]     By  whom  was  he  succeeded  ?    Give  the  genealogical  table 

of  the  houses  of  York  and  Lancaster. 

[295]     What  title  did  the  new  king  assume  ?    What  became  of 

A    his  possessions  in  that  country^     Was  there  no  exception  ? 

What  effect  had  these  losses  on  the  minds  of  his  subjects  ? 

What  was  the  immediate  result  of  their  discontent  ?   By  whom 

was  this  opposition  headed  ?    On  what  grounds  did  he  claim 


296 303.]  OF    MEDIAEVAL    HISTORY.  205 

the  crown  1  What  wars  were  occasioned  by  this  dispute  1 
B  Who  was  nominated  protector,  and  during  what  period  7 
Where  did  the  two  armies  meet,  and  with  what  results  1  To 
what  terms  did  Henry  eventually  consent  1  By  whom  was 
the  war  renewed  1  What  was  the  fate  of  Richard  1 

[296]  By  whom  was  the  title  of  king  then  assumed  1  With  whom 
c  did  Queen  Margaret  then  form  an  alliance  1  What  was  the 
result  of  this  measure  1  By  whom  was  Edward  supported  in 
his  attempt  to  recover  the  English  crown  1  What  was  the 
fate  of  Henry  VI.  1  What  became  of  the  house  of  Lancas- 
ter 1  What  member  of  that  house  escaped,  and  where  did 
he  seek  an  asylum  1 

[297]  By  whom  was  Edward  IV.  succeeded  7  What  was  his 
fate  1 

[298]  Who  next  ascended  the  throne  1  In  what  battle  was  he 
A  slain  1  What  claims  were  reconciled  by  the  accession  of 
Henry  VII.  1 

§  64.     The  Pyrencean  Peninsula. 

[299]  What  possession  still  remained  in  the  hands  of  the  Moors 
in  1237  1  On  what  kingdom  was  it  generally  dependent  1 
What  was  its  condition  1 

[300].  B]  Name  the  two  Christian  kingdoms  in  Spain.  How  was 
Arragon  governed  7  In  what  year,  and  by  whose  marriage, 
were  the  two  kingdoms  united  7  What  kingdom  was  added 
in  1492  7  From  what  event  do  you  date  the  independence  of 
c  Navarre  7  By  whom  was  a  new  dynasty  founded  in  Portugal  7 
By  whom  were  Madeira  and  the  Azores  discovered  7  Did  he 
make  any  other  discoveries  7  By  whom,  and  in  what  year, 
was  the  Cape  of  Good  Hope  discovered  7  What  was  its  first 
name  7 

§  65.     The  Byzantine  Empire  under  the  Palceologi. 

[301]     By  whom  was  the  Byzantine  empire  reunited  1  With  what 
D    exception  7   What  was  the  character  of  the  sovereigns  of  this 
A    dynasty  7     What  attempt  was  made  to  obtain  assistance,  and 
with  what  success  7     By  what  circumstances  were  the  Otto- 
mans withheld  for  a  time  7     To  whom,  and  in  what  year,  did 
B    Constantinople  surrender  7     What  other  states  fell  into  the 
hands  of  the  conqueror  7    Of  what  nation  did  the  kingdom  of 
Cyprus  become  a  dependency  7 

§  66.     The  Osmans. 

[302,  c]    Who  was  Osman  7    On  the  ruins  of  what  kingdom  did 

he  found  an  empire  7    What  were  its  original  boundaries  7 

How  were  they  afterwards  extended  7     What  city  became 

D    the  imperial  residence  7   By  whom  were  the  Osmans  defeated  7 

What  conquests  were  achieved  by  Mohammed  II.  7 

§  67.     The  Mongols. 

[303]    Under  whom  did  the  Mongols  again  become  a  formidable 
A    power  7  -  Of  whom  was  he  a  descendant  7     What  kingdoms 


[304]    By 
B    Whor 


206  QUESTIONS    TO    HANDBOOK  [304 308. 

did  he  found  1  Against  what  countries  did  he  carry  on  suc- 
cessful wars  7  What  was  the  extent  of  the  empire  at  his 
death  7 

§  68.     Scandinavia. 

whom  were  the  several  Danish  principalities  reunited  7 
horn  did  the  daughter  of  this  sovereign  marry  7    What 
kingdoms  were  placed  at  her  disposal  1     By  what  circum- 
c    stances  1    To  whom  did  the  estates  of  Sweden   offer  the 
Swedish  crown  1    By  what  treaty  were  the  three  Scandina- 
vian kingdoms  united  7    What  privileges  were  retained  by 
D    each  1    By  whom  was  Margaret  succeeded  7    By  whom  was 
the  throne  of  Denmark  and  Norway  then  filled  7    What  prov- 
inces were  added  to  the  possessions  of  the  new  royal  house  7 

§  69.    Russia. 

[305]     What  grand   principalities  were   united  to  Russia  7    Of 
A    what  provinces  was  it  deprived  7    By  whom,  and  during  what 
period  7   Under  which  sovereign  did  the  Russians  emancipate 
B    themselves  7    From  the  tyranny  of  what  horde  7     Into  how 
many  kingdoms  was  the  Khanate  of  Kaptschak  divided  7 
Who  was  the  real  founder  of  the  Russian  empire  7     How  far 
did  he  extend  his  dominions  7    From  what  nation  did  he  ex- 
act tribute  7     What  title  did  he  assume  7 

§  70.     Poland. 

[306]    Under  what  dynasty  were  Great  and  Little  Poland  united  7 
o    Of  what  territories  was  Casimir  the  Great  deprived,  and  by 
whom  7     What  new  possessions  did  he  acquire  7     What  title 
was  given  him,  and  for  what  reason  7    By  whom  was  he  suc- 
ceeded 7     By  what  means  did  he  secure  the  succession  for 
D    his  daughter  7     What  province  was  reunited  to  Poland  7    By 
whose  marriage  7    What  name  was  assumed  by  the  new  sove- 
reign 7 

[307]     What  concessions  were  extorted  from  Wladislaw  II.  7    Af- 

A    ter  what  victory  did  he  obtain  possession  of  Samogitia7 

Where  was  peace  concluded  7     What  territories  were  added 

by  a  second  peace  7     In  whose  reign  7     What  was  then  the 

extent  of  Poland  7 

$  71.     Prussia  under  the  Teutonic  Order. 

[308,  B]  Where  was  the  Teutonic  order  settled  7  Since  what 
year  7  What  countries  had  it  acquired  by  conquest  7  Under 
what  grand  master  was  the  order  most  flourishing  7  By  what 
defeat  was  its  power  shattered  7  What  war  was  terminated 
by  this  battle  7  By  whom,  and  with  what  result,  was  Marien- 

c  burg  defended  7  By  whom  was  the  tyranny  of  the  order  re- 
sisted 7  Where  was  a  second  peace  concluded  7  What  con- 

D  cessions  were  made  by  the  order  7  Whither  were  its  head- 
quarters transferred  7  By  whom  were  Livonia,  Esthonia,  and 
Courland  governed  until  1513  7 


309 — 313.]  OF   MEDIAEVAL   HISTORY.  207 


§  72.     Hungary. 

[309]     What  was  the  result  of  the  struggles  occasioned  by  the  ex- 
A    tinction  of  the  Arpad  dynasty  1     Under  what  kings  was  the 
political  condition  of  Hungary  greatly  improved  1   What  Hun- 
garian sovereign  became  the  most  powerful  monarch  of  Eu- 
B    rope  1    By  what  conquests  1    By  whom  was  he  succeeded  1 
Of  what  family  was  the  new  king  a  member  1    Name  the 
c    three  next  kings.     By  whom  was  he  succeeded  1    How  did 
he  offend  the  electors?     To  whom  did  they  offer  the  crown'? 
To  what  circumstances  do  you  ascribe  the  great  renown  of 
Matthias  Corvinus  1 

$  73.     Religion,  Arts,  Sciences,  <f*c.,  during  the  Fourth  Period. 

[310]     What  circumstances  were  preparing  the  way  for  the  recep- 

D  tion  of  Christianity  in  Africa?  How  was  the  influence  of  the 
papacy  endangered  during  this  period  1  What  was  the  great 
object  of  the  councils  of  Basle  and  Constance  1  Was  this  ob- 
ject attained  1  What  terrible  pestilence  devastated  Europe 
in  the  fourteenth  century  1  What  was  the  result  of  renewed 
attempts  to  reunite  the  Greek  and  Latin  Churches  1  Who 
refused  to  recognize  the  proceedings  of  this  synod  1 
[311,  c]  How  was  the  spirit  of  political  combination  manifested 
in  Germany  ?  By  what  means  was  the  power  of  the  French 

D  kings  augmented  1  What  was  the  result  of  an  opposite  poli- 
cy in  Germany?  What  system  was  maintained  in  Italy? 

A    By  means  of  what  state  1     What  was  the  constitution  of  the 
East  ?     What  was  the  most  remarkable  peculiarity  in  the  ad- 
ministration of  justice  at  this  period? 
[312]     Mention  the  three  causes  which  united  to  produce  new  life 

B    in  the  sciences.     To  what  circumstances  do  you  ascribe  the 

c  revival  of  the  study  of  classical  literature  ?  By  whom  was  a 
better  taste  in  literature  introduced  and  propagated?  By 
whom  was  the  art  of  printing  invented  ?  By  whom  was  he 

D    assisted  ?    What  was  the  first  book  printed  ?    What  distinc- 

A  tion  existed  in  the  scholastic  Aristotelic  philosophy?  By 
what  circumstances  were  the  studies  of  geography,  mathe- 
matics, and  medicine  severally  promoted  ? 

[313,  B]     In  what  country  did  poetry  most  nourish  ?    Name  a  few 
of  the  most  distinguished  Italian  writers.     What  dialect  be- 

c  came  the  language  of  Italian  literature  ?  Who  was  the  earli- 
est German  prose  writer?  Who  was  the  father  of  English 
poetry  ?  What  new  school  of  architecture  arose  during  this 

D  period  ?  Where  were  the  best  architects  ?  Who  was  the 
inventor  of  perspective  ?  Who  were  the  most  distinguished 
masters  in  the  earlier  Cologne  and  Flemish  schools  ?  In  what 

A  country,  and  when,  was  copper-plate  printing  invented  ?  In 
whose  hands  was  the  maritime  trade  of  the  South  ?  Between 
what  nations  was  the  command  of  the  Mediterranean  at  first 

B  divided  ?  What  advantages  were  obtained  by  Venice  during 
the  long  war  ?  To  what  confederation  did  the  coasts  of  wes- 
tern and  northern  Europe  belong  ?  Of  how  many  cities  did 
this  union  consist  ?  Name  its  three  branches.  What  divi- 


208  QUESTIONS    TO    HANDBOOK,    ETC. 

c  sion  took  place  at  a  later  period  ?  Where  were  its  principal 
depots  1  "What  city  was  at  last  recognized  as  the  chief  of  the 

D  Union  1  In  whose  hands  was  the  overland  trade?  What 
fairs  were  in  general  repute  towards  the  end  of  this  period  1 
Where  was  the  principal  emporium  of  the  French  overland 
trade  1 


APPENDIX. 


REFERENCES  FOR  A  FULLER  COURSE. 

IN  preparing  the  following  references,  I  have  confined  myself 
to  such  works  as  are  generally  found  in  every  good  library,  with- 
out aiming  at  even  a  partial  bibliography  of  the  Middle  Ages, 
which  will  be  given  in  another  place.  The  student  will  also  find 
some  useful  hints  in  Smith's  Lectures,  although  the  references  in 
that  work  to  Continental  and  French  history  are  very  imperfect 
even  in  the  last  edition. 

(The  Arabic  numerals  refer  to  the  Sections  in  the  text.) 

FIRST  RERIOD. 

§  1.  The  original  sources  for  the  ancient  Germans  are  Tacitus 
Germania  (V.  the  valuable  notes,  though  too  brief,  in  Tyler's 
edition)  and  Caesar  de  Bello  Gall.,  L.  VI. 

Moderns.  V.  Greene's  Historical  Series,  v.  3,  ch.  1 ;  also  Hist. 
Geography,  ch.  2 ;  Gibbon,  ch.  9  and  part  of  10  (Milman's  edi- 
tion) ;  Sismondi,  Fall  of  the  Roman  Empire,  ch.  3. 

§8.  Y.  Greene's  Hist.  Series,  ch.  2 ;  Gibbon,  ch.  39,  41,  43,  45 ; 
Sismondi,  ch.  9,  10,  11 ;  Lord  Mahon's  Bellisarius. 

§9.  Hist.  Series,  ch.  1,  84;  ch.  5,  73;  Gibbon,  ch.  33,  36.  37, 
41 ;  Sismondi,  ch.  6,  7,  8,  10. 

§  10.  Hist.  Series,  33. 

$11.  Hist.  Series,  ch.  11,  §11;  Gibbon,  ch.  31,  35,  36,  38,  51; 
Sismondi.  6,  7,  8,  15. 

§12.  Hist.  Series,  51,  52,  pass.;  Gibbon,  ch.  25,  31,  38;  Sis- 
mondi, 8. 

§  13.  Hist.  Ser.,  ch.  4,  part  1 ;  Gibbon,  ch.  35,  38 ;  Sismondi, 
8,  9,  11.  12. 

$  14.  Hist.  Ser.,  ch.  4,  part  2;  ch.  6,  pass;    Gibbon,  by  Index. 

ft  15.  Hist.  Ser.,  ch.  5;  Gibbon  and  Sismondi,  by  Index. 

ty  16.  Hist.  Ser.,  ch.  7 ;  Gibbon,  ch.  50,  51,  part  of  52 ;  Sis- 
mondi. 13  14  part  of  15;  Irving's  Mahomet  and  his  Successors; 
Hallam's  Middle  Affes,  ch.  6;  Bush,  Life  of  Mahomet  (Fam. 
Lib.). 


210  APPENDIX. 

§  17.  Hist.  Ser.,  ch.  5,  pass. ;  Gibbon,  ch.  8,  part  of  18,  24,  25, 
42,  46 ;  Sismondi,  3,  10,  12,  14. 

18.  Hist.  Ser.,  ch.  17 ;  Gibbon,  by  Index. 

19.  Hist.  Ser.,  ch.  17 ;  Gibbon,  by  Index. 


SECOND  PERIOD. 

§20.  V.  Hist.  Ser.,  ch.  8,  9;  Gibbon,  49;  Sismondi,  16, 17, 18, 
19,  20;  Hallam's  Middle  Ages,  ch.  1,  p.  1;  James's  History  of 
Charlemagne. 

$21.  Hist.  Ser.,  ch.  11 ;  Gibbon,  ch.  49;  Sismondi,  pass. 

$22.  Hist.  Ser.,  ch.  11. 

$23.  Hist.  Ser.,  ch.  11;  Gibbon,  ch.  49 ;  Sismondi,  23;  Hal- 
lam,  parts  of  ch.  6. 

$  24.  Hist.  Ser.,  ch.  11 ;  Gibbon,  66 ;  Hallam,  ch.  6,  part  of 
ch.  7. 

§25.  Hist.  Series,  ch.  10,  11;  Sketches  of  Venetian  History 
(Family  Library);  Gibbon,  by  Index,  and  ch.  56;  Sismondi, 
Italian  Republics  (Cab.  Cyc.).  ch.  1. 

$26.  Hist.  Ser.,  ch.  9;  Hallam,  ch.  1,  part  1. 

$27.  Hist.  Ser.,  ch.  9. 

$28.  Hist.  Ser.,  ch.  3;  Hume  (Alfred),  Lingard  id.  Turner 
Anglo  Saxons,  pass. 

$29.  Hist.  Ser.,  ch.  3;  Hume,  Lingard,  Turner,  by  Index. 

$30.  Hist,  Ser.,  ch.  10;  Thierry's  History  of  the  Norman  Con- 
quests ;  Hume ;  Lingard ;  Turner. 

$  32.  Hist.  Ser.,  89. 

$  33.  Hist.  Ser.,  ch.  7,  part  2 ;  Hallam,  ch.  4. 

$36,  37,  38,  39,  Hist.  Ser.,  ch.  17. 


THIRD  PERIOD. 

$41.  Hist.  Ser.,  ch.  12;   Gibbon,  ch.  58,  59,  part  of  60;   Mill's 
History  of  the  Crusades ;  James's  do. 

$42,  43,  44.  Hist.  Ser.,  ch.  11,  $4,  id.  nos.  217,  218;    Hallam, 
ch.  3,  p.  1.  ch.  5;  Sismondi.  Ital.  Repub.,  ch.  1,  2,  3. 
,45.  Hist.  Ser.,  ch.  14;  Sismondi,  Ital.  Repub.,  pass. 

46.  Hist.  Ser.,  ch.  15,  $1. 

47.  Hist.  Ser.,  ch.  16,  $2. 

48.  49.  Hist.  Ser.,  ch.  18;  Hallam,  ch.  4.    t 
50.  Hist.  Ser.,  ch.  12. 

52.  Gibbon,  ch.  57. 

53.  Gibbon,  ch.  64. 

54  et  sq.  Hist.  Ser.,  ch.  17. 
59.  Hallam,  ch.  9. 


APPENDIX.  211 


FOURTH  PERIOD. 

§  60.  Koch,  Revolutions  of  Europe,  period  5th,  part  of  6th ; 
Hist.  Ser.,  pass. 

<J61.  Hist.  Ser.,  ch.  14;    Koch,  Rev.  of  Europe,  period  5th, 
part  of  6th. 

",  62.  Hist.  Ser.,  ch.  15,  16 ;  Koch,  ut  sup. 
,63.  Hist.  Ser.,  ch.  15,  16;  Koch,  ut  sup. 
,64.  Hist.  Ser..  ch.  18. 
,65,  66,  67.  Hist.  Ser.,  ch.  19. 

3,  69,  70,  71,  72.  Hist.  Ser.,  ch.  17. 
73.  Hist.  Ser.,  ch.  20;  Hallam,  ch.  9. 


THE    END. 


i'ttgltSJ!. 


HISTORICAL 

AND 

MISCELLANEOUS    QUESTIONS. 

BY   RICHMALL   MANGNALL. 

First  American,  from  the  Eighty-fourth  London  Edition.    With  large  Additions 

Embracing  the  Elements  of  Mythology,  Astronomy,  Architecture, 

Heraldry,  &c.    Adapted  for  Schools  in  the  United  States 

BY  MRS.  JULIA   LAWRENCE. 

Illustrated  with  numerous  Engravings.     One  Volvme,  12mo.     $1. 

CONTENTS. 

A  Short  View  of  Scripture  History,  from  the  Creation  to  the  Return  of  the  Jews— Questions 
from  the  Early  Ages  to  the  time  of  Julius  Caesar— Miscellaneous  Questions  in  Grecian  History 
—Miscellaneous  Questions  in  General  History,  chiefly  Ancient — Questions  containing  a  Sketch 
of  the  most  remarkable  Events  from  the  Christian  Era  to  the  close  of  the  Eighteenth  Century- 
Miscellaneous  Questions  in  Roman  History — Questions  in  English  History,  from  the  Invasion  of 
Caesar  to  the  Reformation — Continuation  of  Questions  in  English  History,  from  the  Reformation 
to  the  Present  Time— Abstract  of  Early  British  History— Abstract  of  English  Reigns  from  the 
Conquest — Abstract  of  the  Scottish  Reigns — Abstract  of  the  French  Reigns?  from  Pharamond  to 
Philip  1— Continuation  of  the  French  Reigns,  from  Louis  VI  to  Louis  Phillippe — Questions  Re- 
lating to  the  History  of  America,  from  its  Discovery  to  the  Present  Time— Abstract  of  Roman 
Kings  and  most  distinguished  Heroes — Abstract  of  the  most  celebrated  Grecians — Of  Heathen 
Mythology  in  general— Abstract  of  Heathen  Mythology— The  Elements  of  Astronomy— Expia- 
tion of  a  few  Astronomical  Terms — List  of  Constellations — Questions  on  Common  Subjects — 
Questions  on  Architecture — Questions  on  Heraldry — Explanations  of  such  Latin  Words  and 
Phrases  as  are  seldom  Englished— Questions  on  the  History  of  the  Middle  Ages. 

"  This  is  an  admirable  work  to  aid  both  teachers  and  parents  in  instructing  children  and  youth, 
itnd  there  is  no  work  of  the  kind  that -we  have  seen  that  is  so  well  calculated  "  to  awaken  a  spirit 
of  laudable  curiosity  in  young  minds,"  and  to  satisfy  that  curiosity  when  awakened." 


HISTORY  OF  ENGLAND, 

From  the  Invasion  of  Julius  Crcsar  to  the  Reign  of  Queen  Victoria. 

BY    MRS.  MARKHAM. 

A  new  Edition,  with  Questions,  adapted  for  Schools  in  the  United  States. 

BY  ELIZA  ROBBINS, 

Author  of"  American  Popular  Lessons,"  "  Poetry  for  Schools,"  Sfc. 

One  Volume,  12mo.     Price  75  cents. 

There  is  nothing  more  needed  in  our  schools  than  good  histories  ;  not  the  dry  compenrls  ii. 
present  UPB,  but  elementary  works  that  shall  suggest  the  moral  uses  of  history,  and  the  provi- 
dence of  God.  manifest  in  the  affairs  of  men. 

Mr.  Markham's  history  was  used  by  that  model  for  all  teachers,  the  late  Dr.  Arnold,  mastei 

j;  the  great  English  school  at  Rugby,  and  agrees  in  its  character  with  his  enlightened  and  pioub 

lew?  of  teaching  his'.ory.    It  is  now  several  years  since  I  adapted  this  history  to  the  form  and 

•ice  acceptable  in  the  schools  in  the  United  States.    I  have  recently  revised  it,  and  trust  that  it 

itifcy  be  extensively  serviceable  in  education. 

The  principal  alterations  from  the  original  are  a  new  and  more  convenient  division  of  pam* 
rv  phs,  and  entire  omission  of  the  conversations  annexed  to  the  chapters.  In  the  placo  of  these 
I  ..ive  affixed  questions  to  every  page  that  may  at  once  facilitate  the  work  of  the  teacher  and 
L?i<  pupil.  The  rational  and  moral  features  of  this  book  first  commended  it  to  me,  am!  I  liave 
uneii  it  successfully  with  my  own  scholars.—  Extract  fr/»n  (he  American  Editor's 


MANDEVILLE'S  READING  BOOKS. 

A    FEW   OPINIONS   OF   THEIR   MERITS. 

At  the  Quarterly  Meeting  of  the  Committee  on  Text-Books  of  the  Common  School  Associa. 
lion  of  Ashtabula  County,  Ohio,  it  was  unanimously  resolved  : 

*  We  recommend  Professor  Mandeville's  series  of  Reading  Books,  comprising  '  Primary 
Reader.' '  Second  Reader,'  '  Third  Reader,'  '  Fourth  Reader,'  '  Course  of  Reading,1  and  Element* 
of  Reading  and  Oratory,'  for  the  following  among  other  reasons : — 

"  1.  They  contain  a  greater  variety  of  matter  and  style  than  ary  other  series  witfl  which  wo 
are  acquainted;  and  the  selections  are  peculiarly  well  adapted  to  interest  the  young, and  to  form 
the  habit  of  reading  in  an  easy,  natural  manner,  instead  of  the  stiff,  mechanical  mode  prevalent 
in  our  schools. 

"2.  The  punctuation  throughout  the  series  is  in  accordance  with  sentential  structure;  and 
coinciding  with  the  delivery,  a  guide  to  it.  This  admirable  system  of  punctuation  is  fully 
developed  in  the  sixth  book  of  the  series. 

"  3.  The  fifth  and  sixth  books  contain  a  complete  classification  and  description  of  all  the  sen- 
tences of  the  English  language,  with  numerous  examples ;  in  the  sixth  are  definite  rules,  derived 
from  the  structure  of  sentences,  for  their  proper  delivery ;  and  throughout  the  series  signs  are 
introduced,  so  far  as  necessary,  to  guide  the  pupil  in  giving  the  proper  inflections,  and  the  va- 
rious evolutions  or  movements  of  the  voice. 

"  4.  Th«  nature  of  Emphasis  is  fully  and  philosophically  explained  ;  and  its  vocal  effects  are  so 
Nearly  pointed  out,  that  learners,  with  ordinary  instructions,  will  be  in  little  danger  of  forming 
the  habit  of  reading  in  a  monotonous  manner. 

"  5.  In  short,  these  works,  being  eminently  scientific  and  practical,  are  well  calculated  to 
make  intelligent  and  accomplished  readers;  to  lead  pupils  to  think,  and  to  give  to  thought  its 
appropriate  rhetorical  and  vocal  expression ;  and  we  are  fully  of  the  opinion,  that  with  the  use 
of  iht  se  books  in  the  hands  of  teachers  acquainted  with  the  system,  the  labor  of  learning  to  read 
will  be  very  much  abridged  :  and  consequently  their  introduction  will  prove  a  great  saving  to 
Ike  community  in  a  pecuniary  point  of  view.'' 

At  a  meeting  of  the  BOARD  OP  EDUCATION  of  the  City  of  BROOKLYN,  it  was  unanimously 
resolved,  that  Professor  MANDBVILLB'H  SERIES  OP  READING  BOOKS  be  exclusively  adopted  a* 
^xt- books  in  the  Common  Schools  of  the  city. 


Prom  the  Teacher*  of  the  Public  School  Society  of  New-  York. 

"  NEW-YORK,  July  9th,  1849. 

"  The  Teachers  of  the  New- York  Public  School  Society  have  listened  with  much  pleasure  to 
Prof.  Mandeville's  Course  of  Lectures  on  Reading,  and  it  appears  to  them  that  his  system,  as 
explained  in  the  '  Elements  of  Reading  and  Oratory,'  presents  the  following  advantages : 

"  1st.  A  series  of  Rules  for  punctuation  easily  learned  and  readily  applied. 

"  2d.  This  punctuation  is  so  applied  as  to  prove  in  most  cases  a  guide  to  the  delivery  of  the 
sentence. 

"3d.  The  system  introduces  the  student  to  a  thorough  analysis  of  the  grammatical  structure 
of  sentences. 

M4th.  It  is  equally  valuable  as  a  Rhetorical  exercise,  since  it  places  the  subject  of  '  Style'  in 
a  clearer  light  than  any  elementary  work  with  which  the  Teachers  are  acquainted. 

"  5th.  A  classification  of  the  different  sentences  in  the  language,  with  a  description  of  theii 
distinctive  peculiarities  of  structure,  and  this  classification  successfully  illustrated  by  examples 
drawn  from  a  great  number  of  the  best  English  writers. 

U6th.  While  other  systems  are  content  with  laying  down  some  general  principles,  and  leave 
so  much  to  caprice  or  momentary  impulse  on  the  part  of  the  reader,  this  system,  on  the  other 
hand,  considers  minute  details  of  the  utmost  importance  to  general  effect :  and  by  giving  reasons 
for  the  particular  delivery  of  every  form  of  sentence,  recommends  itself  by  its  clearness,  pre- 
cision, and  unity. 

"  7th.  These  views  apply  to  the  « Elements  of  Reading  and  Oratory,'  the  only  work  of  Prof. 
Mandeville's  that  has  come  under  the  notice  of  the  Teachers  as  a  body. 

"  It  is  therefore, 

"  Resolved,  That  the  Teachers  of  the  P.  S.  Society  recommend  tne  system  of  Prof.  Mande 
ville,  contained  in  his  '  Elements  of  Reading  and  Oratory,'  as  worthy  of  the  very  highest  atten 
lion  of  their  fellow-teacher*  every  where. 

"  Rfsnlrfd.  That  the  excellent  i  I  lust  nit  ions  of  hi?  principles  given  by  the  Professor,  hart 
convoved  u>  us  a  con-en  and  clear  idea  ol  the  practical  benefits  ol  hia  very  excellent  system  " 

O 


fttgltslj. 


A  DICTIONARY  OF  THE  ENGLISH  LANGUAGE, 

CONTAINING     THE    PRONUNCIATION,    ETYMOLOGY,    AND     EXPLANATION    OP    ALL    WORDS     AU- 
THORIZED  BY   EMINENT   WRITERS  ; 

To  which  are  added,  a  Vocabulary  of  the  Roots  of  English  Words,  and  an  Accented 
List  of  Greek,  Latin,  and  Scripture  Proper  Names 

BY  ALEXANDER  REID,  A.M., 
Rector  of  the  Circus  School,  Edinburgh. 

With  a  Critical  Preface,  by  HENRY  REED,  Professor  of  English  Literature  in  the  University  of 

Pennsylvania,  and  an  Appendix,  showing  the  Pronunciation  of  nearly  3000  of 

the  most  important  Geographical  Names.    One  volume,  12mo. 

of  nearly  600  pages,  bound  in  Leather.    Price  $1 

Among  the  wants  of  our  time  was  a  good  dictionary  of  our  own  language,  especially  adapted 
for  academies  and  schools.  The  books  which  have  long  been  in  use  were  of  little  value  to  the 
junior  students,  being  too  concise  in  the  definitions,  and  imraethodical  in  the  arrangement 
Reid's  English  Dictionary  was  compiled  expressly  to  develop  the  precise  analogies  ana  various 
properties  of  the  authorized  words  in  general  use,  by  the  standard  authors  and  orators  who  use 
our  vernacular  tongue. 

Exclusive  of  the  large  number  of  proper  names  which  are  appended,  this  Dictionary  includes 
four  especial  improvements — and  when  their  essential  value  to  the  student  is  considered,  the 
sterling  character  of  the  work  as  a  hand-book  of  our  language  will  be  instantly  perceived. 

The  primitive  word  is  distinguished  by  a  larger  type  ;  and  when  there  are  any  derivatives 
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With  this  facility  to  comprehend  accurately  the  determinate  meaning  of  the  English  word,  is 
conjoined  a  rich  illustration  for  the  linguist.  The  derivation  of  all  the  primitive  words  is  dis- 
tinctly given,  and  the  phrases  of  the  languages  whence  they  are  deduced,  whether  composite  or 
simple;  so  that  the  student  of  foreign  languages,  both  ancient -and  modern,  by  a  reference  to 
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To  these  advantages  is  subjoined  a  Vocabulary  of  the  Roots  of  English  Words,  which  is  of 
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cented  List,  to  the  number  of  fifteen  thousand,  of  Greek,  Latin,  and  Scripture  Proper  Names. 

RECOMMENDATIONS. 

REID'S  Dictionary  of  the  English  Language  is  an  admirable  book  for  the  use  of  schools. 
Its  plans  combine  a  greater  number  of  desirable  conditions  for  such  a  work,  than  any  with 
which  I  am  acquainted:  and  it  seems  to  me  to  be  executed  in  general  with  great  judgment, 
fidelity,  and  accuracy. 

C.  S.  HENRY, 


Professor  of  Philosophy,  History,  and  Belles  Lettres, 
in  the  University  of  the  City  of  New-  York. 


Reid's  Dictionary  of  the  English  Language  is  compiled  upon  sound  principles,  and  with 
judgment  and  accuracy.  It  has  the  merit,  too,  of  combining  much  more  than  is  usually  looked 
for  in  Dictionaries  of  small  size,  and  will,  I  believe,  be  found  excellent  as  a  convenient  manual, 
for  general  use  and  reference,  and  also  for  various  purposes  of  education. 

HENRY  REED, 

Professor  of  English  Literature  in  the   University  of  Pennsylvania. 

After  a  careful  examination,  I  am  convinced  that  Reid's  English  Dictionary  has  strong 
claims  upon  the  attention  of  teachers  generally.  It  is  of  convenient  size,  beautifully  executed, 
and  seems  well  adapted  to  the  use  of  scholars,  from  the  common  school  to  the  university. 

D.  H.  CHASE, 

Principal  of  Preparatory  School. 

MlDDLETOWN,  Ct. 

After  a  thorough  examination  of  "  Reid's  English  Dictionary,"  I  may  safely  say  that  I  con 
sider  it  superior  to  any  of  the  School  Dictionaries  with  which  I  am  acquainted.  Its  accurate 
and  concise  definitions,  and  a  vocabulary  of  the  roots  of  English  words,  drawn  from  an  author 
of  such  authority  as  Bosworth,  are  not  among  the  least  of  its  excellencies. 

MV-M.  PARKS, 
Chaplain  and  Professor  of  Ethics,  U.  S.  Military  Academy,  West  Point. 

15 


A  MANUAL  OF  ANCIENT  AND  MODERN  HISTORY, 


COMPRISING  : 

I.  ANCIENT  HISTORY,  containing  the  Political  History,  Geographical  Position,  and  Socia; 
State  of  the  Principal  Nations  of  Antiquity,  carefully  digested  from  the  Ancient  Writers,  and  il- 
lustrated by  the  discoveries  of  Modern  Travellers  and  Scholars. 

II.  MODERN  HISTORY,  containing  the  Rise  and  Progress  of  the  principal  European  Nations, 
'Jieir  Political  History,  and  the  changes  in  their  Social  Condition :  with  a  History  of  the  Colonies 
Founded  by  Europeans.  By  W.  COOKE  TAYLOR,  LL.D.,  cf Trinity  College,  Dublin.    Reused, 
with  Additions  on  American  History,  by  C.  S-  Henry,  D.  D.,  Professor  of  History  in  the  Univer- 
sity of  N.  Y.,  and  Questions  adapted  for  the  Use  of  Schools  and  Colleges.     One  handsome  TO]., 
8v3._ ol  800  pages,  8^25 ;  Ancient  History  in  1  vol.  81,25,  Modern  History  in  1  vol.,  81.50. 

The  ANCIENT  HISTORY  division  comprises  Eighteen  Chapters,  which  include  the  genera] 
outlines  of  the  History  of  Egypt— the  Ethiopians— Babylonia  and  Assyria— Western  Asia— Pal 
estine — tite  Empire  of  the  Medes  and  Persians — Phoenician  Colonies  in  Northern  Africa — Found- 
ation and  History  of  the  Grecian  States— Greece— the  Macedonian  Kingdom  and  Empire— the 
States  that  arose  irom  the  dismemberment  of  the  Macedonian  Kingdom  and  Empire — Ancient 
Italy — Sicily — the  Roman  Republic — Geographical  and  Political  Condition  of  the  Roman  Empire 
-  -History  of  the  Roman  Empire— and  India— with  an  Appendix  of  important  illustrative  articles 

This  portion  is  one  of  the  best  Compends  of  Ancient  History  that  ever  yei  has  appeared  li 
contains  a  complete  text  for  the  collegiate  lecturer;  and  is  an  essential  hand-book  for  the  student 
who  is  desirous  to  become  acquainted  with  all  that  is  memorable  in  general  secular  archeology. 

The  MODERN  HISTORY  portion  is  divided  into  Fourteen  Chapters,  on  the  following  genera] 
subjects  : — Consequences  of  the  Fall  of  the  Western  Empire — Rise  and  Establishment  of  the 
Saracenic  Power— Restoration  of  the  Western  Empire— Growth  of  the  Papal  Power— RevivaJ 
of  Literature — Progress  of  Civilization  an<l  Invention — Reformation,  and  Commencement  of  tht 
States  System  in  Europe— Augustan  Ages  of  England  and  France— Mercantile  and  Colonial  Sys- 
tem—Age of  Revolutions— French  Empire— History  of  the  Peace— Colonization— China— the 
Jews — with  Chronological  and  Historical  Tables  and  other  Indexes.  Dr.  Henry  has  appended  a 
new  chapter  on  the  History  of  the  United  States. 

This  Manual  of  Modern  History,  by  Mr.  Taylor,  is  the  most  valuable  and  instructive  work 
concerning  the  general  subjects  which  ft  comprehends,  that  can  be  found  in  the  whole  department 
of  historical  literature.  Mi.  Taylor's  book  is  fast  superseding  all  other  compends,  and  is  already 
adopted  as  a  text-book  in  Harvard,  Columbia,  Yale,  New-York,  Pennsylvania  and  Brown  Uiu 
vereities,  and  several  leading  Academies. 


LECTURES 

ON 

MODERN  HISTORY. 

By  THOMAS  ARNOLD,  D.D., 

Regius  Professor  of  Modern  History  in  the  University  of  Oxford,  and  Head 
Master  of  Rugby  School. 

EDITED,    WITH    A    PREFACE    AND    NOTES, 

By  HENRY  REED,  LL.D., 
Professor  of  English  Literature  in  the  University  of  Pa. 

One  volume,  12mo.    SI, 25. 

Extract  from  the  American  Editor's  Preface. 

In  preparing  this  edition,  I  have  had  in  view  its  use,  not  only  for  the  general  reader,  but  also 
•e  a  text-book  in  education,  especially  in  our  college  course  of  study.  *  '  *  The  introduction  of 
this  work  as  a  text-book  I  regard  as  important,  because,  as  far  as  my  information  entitles  me  to 
sneak,  there  is  no  book  better  calculated  to  inspire  an  interest  in  historical  study.  That  it  has 
this  power  over  the  minds  of  students  I  can  say  from  experience,  which  enables  me  also  to  add, 
that  I  have  found  it  excellently  suited  to  a  course  of  college  instruction.  By  intelligent  and  en- 
terprising members  of  a  class  especially,  it  is  studied  as  a  text-book  with  zeal  and  animation. 


PROP.  MANDEVILLE'S   READING  BOOKS. 

I.  PRIMARY,  OR  FIRST  READER.     Price  10  cents. 

II.  SECOND  READER.     Price  16  cents. 

These  two  Readers  are  formed  substantially  on  the  same  plan ;  an;  the  second  is  a  continua 
don  of  the  first.  The  design  of  both  is,  to  combine  a  knowledge  of  the  meaning  and  pronuncia- 
aon  of  words,  with  a  knowledge  of  their  grammatical  functions.  The  parts  of  speech  are  in- 
TO'^uced  successively,  beginning  with  the  articles,  these  are  followed  by  the  Demonstrative  pro- 
nouns ;  and  these  again  by  others,  class  after  class,  until  all  that  are  requisite  to  form  a  sentence 
aive  been  separately  considered ;  when  the  common  reading  lessons  begin. 

The  Second  Reader  reviews  the  ground  passed  over  in  the  Primary,  but  adds  largely  to  the. 
amount  of  information.  The  child  is  here  also  taught  to  read  writing  as  well  as  printed  matter-, 
and  in  the  reading  lessons,  attention  is  constantly  directed  to  the  different  ways  in  which 
sentences  are  formed  and  connected,  and  of  the  peculiar  manner  in  which  each  of  them  is  deliv- 
ered. All  who  have  examined  these  books,  have  pronounced  them  a  decided  and  important  ad- 
vance on  every  other  of  the  same  class  in  use. 

III.  THIRD  READER.     Price  25  cents. 

IV.  FOURTH  READER.     Price  38  cents. 

In  the  first  two  Readers,  the  main  object  is  to  make  the  pupil  acquainted  with  the  meaning 
and  functions  of  words,  and  to  impart  facility  in  pronouncing  them  in  sentential  connection  :  the 
leading  design  of  these,  is  to  form  a  natural,  flexible,  and  varied  delivery.  Accordingly,  the 
Third  Reader  opens  with  a  series  of  exercises  on  articulation  and  modulation,  containing  numer- 
ous examples  for  practice  on  the  elementary  sounds  (including  errors  to  be  corrected)  and  on  the 
different  movements  of  the  voice,  produced  by  sentential  structure,  by  emphasis,  and  by  the  pas- 
sions. The  habits  formed  by  these  exercises,  which  should  be  thoroughly,  as  they  can  be  easily 
mastered,  under  intelligent  instruction,  find  scope  for  improvement  and  confirmation  in  the 
reading  lessons  which  follow,  in  the  same  book  and  that  which  succeeds. 

These  lessons  have  been  selected  with  special  reference  to  the  following  peculiarities :  1st. 
Colloquial  character;  2d,  Variety  of  sentential  structure;  3d,  Variety  of  subject  matter;  4th 
Adaptation  to  the  progressive  development  of  the  pupil's  mind;  and,  as  far  as  possible,  5th. 
Tendency  to  excite  moral  and  religious  emotions.  Great  pains  have  been  taken  to  make  the 
books  in  these  respects,  which  are,  in  fact,  characteristic  ol  the  whole  series,  superior  to  any 
o;hers  in  use  ;  with  what  success,  a  brief  comparison  will  readily  show. 

V.  THE  FIFTH  READER;  OR,  COURSE  OF  READING.     Price  75  cents. 

VI.  THE  ELEMENTS  OF  READING  AND  ORATORY.    Price  $1. 

These  books  are  designed  to  cultivate  the  literary  taste,  as  we'll  as  the  understanding  and  voca. 
powers  of  the  pupil. 


cation  and  description  of  every  sentence  to  be  found  in  the  English,  or  any  other  language  ;  ex- 
amples of  which  in  every  degree  of  expansion,  from  a  few  words  to  the  half  of  an  octavo  page 
in  length,  are  adduced,  and  arranged  to  be  read  ;  and  as  each  species  has  its  peculiar  delivery  at) 
well  as  structure,  both  are  learned  at  the  same  time  ;  part  third,  paragraphs  ;  or  sentences  in 
their  connection  unfolding  general  thoughts,  as  in  the  common  reading  books.  It  may  be  ob 
served  that  the  selections  of  sentences  in  part  second,  and  of  paragraphs  in  part  third,  comprise 
some  of  the  finest  gems  in  the  language  :  distinguished  alike  for  beauty  of  thought  and  facility 
of  diction.  If  not  lound  in  a  school  book,  they  might  be  approprately  called  "  elegant  extracts  " 

The  ELEMENTS  OP  READING  AND  ORATORY  closes  the  series  with  an  exhibition  of  the  whole 
theory  and  art  of  Elocution  exclusive  of  gesture.  It  contains,  besides  the  classification  of  sen- 
tences already  referred  >o,  but  here  presented  with  fuller  statement  and  illustration,  the  laws  of 
punctuation  and  delivery  deduced  from  it :  the  whole  followed  by  carefully  selected  oieces  fet 
sentential  analysis  and  vocal  practice. 

THE  RESULT.— The  student  who  acquaints  himself  thoroughly  with  the  contents  of  this 
book,  will,  aa  numerous  experiments  have  proved ;  1st,  Acquire  complete  knowledge  of  the 
structure  of  the  language ;  2d,  Be  able  to  designate  any  sentence  of  any  book  by  name  at  a 
glance;  3d,  Be  able  to  declare  with  equal  rapidity  its  proper  pur.ctuation  ;  4th,  Be  able  to  delare, 
and  with  sufficient  practice  to  give  fts  proper  delivery.  Such  are  a  few  of  the  general  character 
istics  of  the  series  of  school  books  which  the  publishers  now  offer  to  the  friends  and  patront 
of  a  sound  common  school  and  academic  education.  For  more  particular  information,  reference 
is  respectfully  made  to  the  "Hints,"  which  may  be  found  at  the  beginning  of  each  volume. 

N.  B.  The  punctuation  in  all  these  books  conforms,  in  the  main,  to  the  sense  and  proper  de 
livery  of  every  sentence,  and  is  a  guide  to  both.  When  a  departure  from  the  proper  punctuation 
occurs,  the  proper  delivery  is  indicated.  As  reading  books  are  usually  punctuated,  it  i»  a  matter 
'jf  surprise  that  children  should  learn  to  read  at  all. 

*.*  The  above , series  of  Reading  Books  are  already  very  extensively  introduced  and  com- 
mended by  tne  most  experienced  Teachers  in  the  country  "  Prof.  Manderille'R  system  is  emi- 
nently original,  scientific  mid  practical,  and  destined  wherever  it  is  intro -lured  to  supersede  at 

nnre  all  others."  o 

o 


A  TREATISE  ON  ALGEBRA. 

FOR  THE  USE  OF  SCHOOLS  AND  COLLEGES. 
BY  3.  CHASE, 

PROFESSOR  OF  MATHEMATICS  IN  DARTMOUTH  COLLEGE. 

One  volume,  12mo,  340  pages.    Price  $1. 

"  The  Treatise  which  Prof  Chase  has  written  for  the  use  of  schools  and  colleges,  seems  to  us 
to  be  superior  in  not  a  few  respects  to  the  school  Algebras  in  common  use.  The  object  of  the 
writer  was,  "  to  exhibit  such  a  view  of  the  principles  of  Algebra,  as  shall  best  prepare  the  stu- 
dent for  the  further  pursuit  of  mathematical  studies."  He  has,  we  think,  succeeded  in  this  at- 
tempt. His  book  is  more  complete  in  its  explanations  of  the  principles  of  Algebra  than  any 
text-book  with  which  we  are  acquainted.  The  examples  for  practice  are  pertinent,  and  are  suf- 
ficiently numerous  for  the  illustration  of  each  rule. 

"Mr.  C.  has  avoided,  by  his  plan,  the  common  fault  of  text  books  on  Algebra— uselessly  nu- 
merous examples,  and  meagerness  of  explanation  as  respects  the  principles  of  the  science.  The 
order  of  treatment  is  judicious.  Mr.  C.  has  added  a  table  of  formula,  for  convenience  of  refer- 
ence, in  which  are  brought  into  one  view  the  principles  exhibited  in  different  parts  of  the  book. 
It  will  be  of  great  use  to  the  student.  We  think  the  book  is  well  adapted  to  schools  and  colleges, 
into  many  ol  which  it  will,  no  doubt,  be  introduced."— Ch.  Recorder. 


FIRST  LESSONS  IN  GEOMETRY, 

UPON   THE  MODEL  OF   COLBURN'S   FIRST  LESSONS   IN    ARITHMETIC. 
BY    ALPHEU8    CROSBY, 

PROFESSOR  OF  MATHEMATICS   IN  DARTMOUTH   COLLEGE. 

One  volume,  16mo,  170  pages.    Price  37J  cents. 

This  work  is  approved  of  as  the  best  elementary  text-book  on  the  subject,  and  is  very  gene 
rally  adopted  throughout  the  States. 


BURNAM'S  SERIES  OF  ARITHMETICS, 

FOR 

COMMON  SCHOOLS  AND  ACADEMIES. 

PART  FIRST  is  a  work  on  M»TAL  ARITHMETIC.  The  philosophy  of  the  mode  of  teaching 
adopted  in  this  work?  is  :  commence  where  the  child  commences,  and  proceed  as  the  child  pro- 
ceeds :  fall  in  with  his  own  mode  of  arriving  at  truth ;  aid  him  to  think  for  himself,  and  do  not 
the  thinking  for  him.  Hence  a  series  of  exercises  are  given,  by  which  the  child  is  made  familiar 
with  the  process,  which  he  has  already  gone  through  with  in  acquiring  his  present  knowledge. 
These  exercises  interest  the  child,  and  prepare  him  for  future  rapid  progress.  The  plan  is  so 
clearly  unfolded  by  illustration  and  example,  that  he  who  follows  it  can  scarcely  fail  to  secure, 
on  the  part  of  his  pupils,  a  thorough  knowledge  of  the  subject  Price,  20  cts. 

PART  SECOND  is  a  work  on  WRITTEN  ARITHMETIC.  It  is  the  result  of  a  long  experience 
in  teaching,  and  contains  sufficient  of  Arithmetic  for  the  practical  business  purposes  of  life.  It 
illustrates  more  fully  and  applies  more  extendedly  and  practically  the  principle  of  Cancellation 
than  any  other  Arithmetical  treatise.  This  method  as  here  employed  in  connection  with  the  or- 
dinary, furnishes  a  variety  of  illustrations,  which  cannot  fail  to  interest  and  instruct  the  scholar. 
It  is  a  prominent  idea  throushout,  to  impress  upon  the  mind  of  the  scholar  the  truth  that  he  will 
never  discover,  nor  need  a  new  principle  beyond  the  simple  rules.  The  pupil  is  shown,  by  a 
variety  of  new  modes  of  illustration,  that  new  names  and  new  positions  introduce  no  new  prin- 
ciple, but  that  they  are  merely  matters  of  convenience.  Fractions  are  treated  and  explained  the 
same  as  whole  numbers.  Formulas  are  also  given  for  drill  in?  the  scholar  upon  the  Blackboard 
which  will  be  found  of  service  to  many  teachers  of  Common  Schools.  Price,  50  cts. 

16 


MANUAL 

OF 

ANCIENT  GEOGRAPHY  AND  HISTOEY. 

BY  WILHELM   PUTZ, 

.,         PRINCIPAL   TUTOR   IN   THE    GYMNASIUM    OP   DUREN. 

Translated  from  the  German. 
EDITED    BY   THE    REV.    THOMAS   K.    ARNOLD,  M.  A., 

AUTHOR  OP   A    SERIES    OP   "  GREEK   AND   LATIN   TEXT-BOOKS." 

One  volume,  12mo.    $1. 

(i  At  no  period  has  History  presented  such  strong  claims  upon  the  attention  of  the  learned,  E 
it  the  present  day  ;  and  to  no  people  were  its  lessons  of  such  value  as  to  those  of  the  Unite 
States.  With  no  past  of  our  own  to  revert  to,  the  great  masses  of  our  better  educated  are  temple 
'.o  overlook  a  science,  which  comprehends  all  others  in  its  grasp.  To  prepare  a  text-book,  whic 
shall  present  a  full,  clear,  and  accurate  view  of  the  ancient  world,  its  geography,  its  politica 
civil,  social,  religious  state,  must  be  the  result  only  of  vast  industry  and  learning.  Our  exam 
nation  of  the  present  volume  leads  us  to  believe,  that  as  a  text-book  on  Ancient  History,  for  Co 
leges  and  Academies,  it  is  the  best  compend  yet  published.  It  bears  marks  in  its  methodic, 
arrangement,  and  condensation  of  materials,  of  the  untiring  patience  of  German  scholarship ;  an 
in  its  progress  through  the  English  and  American  press,  has  been  adapted  for  acceptable  use  i 
our  best  institutions.  A  noticeable  feature  of  the  book,  is  its  pretty  complete  list  of  'sources  < 
information'  upon  the  nations  which  it  describes.  This  will  be  an  invaluable  aid  to  the  studei 
in  his  future  cfturse  of  reading." 

"  Wilhelm  PUtz,  the  author  of  this  '  Manual  of  Ancient  Geography  and  History,'  is  Princip; 
Tutor  ( Oberleher)  in  the  Gymnasium  of  Duren,  Germany.  His  book  exhibits  the  advantages  < 
the  German  method  of  treating  History,  in  its  arrangement,  its  classification,  and  its  rigid  anal] 
sis.  The  Manual  is  what  it  purports  to  be, '  a  clear  and  definite  outline  of  the  history  of  th 
principal  nations  of  antiquity,'  into  which  is  incorporated  a  concise  geography  of  each  countr 
The  work  is  a  text-book ;  to  be  studied,  and  not  merely  read.  It  is  to  form  the  groundwork  i 
subsequent  historical  investigation,— the  materials  of  which  are  pointed  out,  at  the  proper  place 
in  the  Manual,  in  careful  references  to  the  works  which  treat  of  the  subject  directly  under  coi 
sideration.  The  list  of  references  (especially  as  regards  earlier  works)  is  quite  complete,— thi 
supplying  that  desideratum  in  Ancient  History  and  Geography,  which  has  been  supplied  so  full 
by  Dr.  J.  C.  I.  Gieseler  in  Ecclesiastical  History. 

"  The  nations  whose  history  is  considered  in  the  Manual,  are :  in  Asia,  the  Israelites,  the  Ii 
dians,  the  Babylonians,  the  Assyrians,  the  Medes,  the  Persians,  the  Phoenicians,  the  States  of  Asi 
Minor ;  in  Africa,  the  Ethiopians,  the  Egyptians,  ihe  Carthaginians ;  in  Europe,  the  Greeks,  th 
Macedonians,  the  Kingdoms  which  arose  out  of  the  Macedonian  Monarchy,  the  Romans.  Th 
order  in  which  the  history  of  each  is  treated,  is  admirable.  To  the  whole  are  appended  a  '  Chr< 
nological  Table,'  and  a  well-prepared  series  of  'Questions.'  The  pronunciation  of  prope 
names  is  indicated, — an  excellent  feature.  The  accents  are  given  with  remarkable  correctnes 
The  typographical  execution  of  the  American  edition  is  most  excellent.  "-S.  W.  Baptist  Chronicl 

"  Like  every  thing  which  proceeds  from  the  editorship  of  that  eminent  Instructor,  T.  K.  Arnoli 
this  Manual  appears  to  be  well  suited  to  the  design  with  which  it  was  prepared,  and  will,  ui 
doubtedly,  secure  for  itself  a  place  among  the  text-books  of  schools  and  academies  thoughout  th 
country.  It  presents  an  outline  of  the  history  of  the  ancient  nations,  from  the  earliest  ages  toth 
fall  of  the  Western  Empire  in  the  sixth  century,  the  events  being  arranged  in  the  order  of  a 
accurate  chronology,  and  explained  by  accompanying  treatises  on  the  geography  of  the  sever; 
countries  in  which  they  transpired.  The  chief  feature  of  this  work,  and_  this  is  a  very  importai 
one,  is,  that  it  sets  forth  ancient  history  and  ancient  geography  in  their  connection  with  eac 
other. 

"  It  was  originally  prepared  by  Wilhelm  Piitz,  an  eminent  German  scholar,  and  translated  an 
edited  in  England  by  Rev.  T.  K.  Arnold,  and  is  now  revised  and  introduced  to  the  America 
public  in  a  well  wdtten  preface,  by  Mr.  George  W.  Greene,  Teacher  of  Modern  Languages  i 
Brown  University."— Prov.  Journal. 

5 


PERKINS'   COURSE  OF  MATHEMATICS. 

TESTIMONIALS. 

From  the  numerous  recommendations  of  these  works,  received  from  the  highest  sources,  the 
following  selections  are  deemed  sufficient  to  call  the  attention  of  Teachers,  and  those  connected 
with  Education,  to  a  thorough  trial  of  their  merits. 

From  PROF.  COOK  and  DR.  CAMPBELL,  of  Albany  Academy. 

"  From  all  who  have  used  the  ELEMENTARY  ARITHMETIC  here,  both  teachers  and  scholars, 
we  hear  but  one  opinion,  and  that  is  most  favorable.  It  is  an  excellent  text-book,  and  we  have 
no  hesitation  in  recommending  it  to  parents  and  pupils." 

Extract  from  the  Minutes  of  the  Board  of  School  Commissioners  of  the  City  of  Albany, 

April  llth,  1850. 

"  The  Committee  on  text-books  made  a  report,  recommending  Perkins'  SERIES  OF  ARITHME- 
TICS as  superior  text-books  for  the  use  of  schools;  whereupon  it  was  unanimously  resolved, 
that  Perkins'  Primary  and  Elementary  Arithmetics  be  adopted  as  the  Arithmetical  text-books  of 
the  Albany  District  Schools." 

From  I.  W.  JACKSON,  A.  M.,  Professor  of  Mathematics,  Union  College. 
'  The  Higher  Arithmetic  is  a  work  of  an  order  superior  to  any  that  has  been  issued  from  the 
American  press.     Indeed,  I  am  acquainted  with  no  work  on  Arithmetic  in  the  English  language 
equal  to  it.     I  am  confident  that  its  general  adoption  as  a  text-book,  by  our  seminaries,  would 
be  considered  by  all  who  feel  an  interest  in  the  promotion  of  the  exact  sciences,  as  an  omen  of 
good." 
The  following  was  unanimously  adopted  by  the  Chenango  County  Teachers'  Institute,  in 

October,  1849. 

"That  we  consider  Perkins'  Elementary  Arithmetic,  Higher  Arithmetic  and  Elements  of 
Algebra,  better  adapted  to  the  use  of  schools  than  any  other  works  on  these  subjects ;  that  we 
highly  recommend  their  use  throughout  the  country,  and  that  we  will  each  use  our  endeavors  to 
secure  their  adoption  in  our  several  schools." 

From  SAMUEL  CROSS,  Principal  of  Classical  Institute,  Warren,  R.  I. 
"  After  a  thorough  examination,  I  must  say,  in  all  candor,  that  I  am  much  pleased  with  the 
Elementary  Arithmetic." 

From  GEORGE  W.  MEEKER,  Es<*.,  Secretary  of  the  Board  of  School  Inspectors,  Chicago. 
"  I  consider  them  better  adapted  to  the  wants  of  our  Schools  and  Seminaries  than  any  other 
series  extant.    I  am  happy  to  add,  that  the  Arithmetics  have  recently  been  unanimously  adopted 
as  the  text-books  of  the  Public  Schools  of  this  City. 

Frwn  each  of  the  Principals  of  the  Public  Schools  of  Chicago. 
"We  have  examined  Perkins'  Arithmetics,  and  consider  them  the  best  before  the  public." 

Extract  from  a  Letter  from  CEO.  P.  WILLIAMS,  Professor  of  Mathematics  and  Natural 

Philosoj)hy<  University  of  Michigan. 

"  After  an  examination  of  the  last  editions  of  these  works,  I  am  prepared  to  repeat  the  opinion 
formerly  expressed,  that  they  are  the  best  arithmetics  in  use." 

From  C.  M.  WRIGHT,  Principal  of  South  Bend  (_Ind.)  Academy. 

"  I  tiave  adopted  Perkins'  Mathematical  Series,  and  say  unhesitatingly  that  they  need  only  be 
examined  to  be  liked." 

From  JOHN  F.  NICHOLS,  Principal  of  the  High  School,  Detroit. 

"I  have  examined,  with  great  care,  the  revised  edition  of  Perkins'  Elementary  Arithmetic; 
and  I  hesitate  not  in  saying,  that  in  my  opinion,  it  is  much  superior  to  any  other  work  on  the 
subject,  with  which  I  am  acquainted." 

From  O.  S.  TAYLOR,  Principal  of  Branch  University,  Michigan. 
"The  Elementary  Arithmetic  is  the  most  practical  work  in  the  English  language." 

From  N.  BRITTAIN,  Principal  of  Rochester  Collegiate  Institute. 

I  have  examined  with  considerable  care  "Perkins'  Elementary  Arithmetic,"  and  regard  it  a 
work  of  great  merit.  In  several  important  points,  I  consider  it  preferable  to  any  work  of  the 
kind  now  in  use. 

From  I.  F.  MACK,  ESQ..,  late  Sup.  P.  Schools  of  Rochester. 

I  concur  in  the  sentiment  above  expressed  in  reference  to  •'  Perkins'  Elementary  Arithmetic." 
The  "  Higher  Arithmetic,"  and  Algebra,  by  the  same  Author,  have  been  adopted  by  the  Board  of 
Education  of  this  city,  and  introduced  into  the  public  schools  with  entire  satisfaction. 
From  CHARLES  AVERY,  A.  M.,  A.  A.  S.,  Prof,  of  Chemistry  and  Nat.  Phil.  Hamilton  College. 

I  have  examined  Perkins'  Algebra,  and  am  pleased  with  it,  I  esteem  it  a  valuable  work  of 
the  kind;  and  do,  therefore,  cheerfully  recommend  it  to  the  confidence  and  patronage  of  ;.he 
public. 


CLASS-BOOK  OF  NATURAL  HISTORY. 


ZOOLOGY: 

DESIGNED  TO   AFFORD  PUPILS  IN  COMMON  SCHOOLS  AND    ACADEMIES  A 
KNOWLEDGE  OF  THE  ANIMAL  KINGDOM,  ETC. 

BY  PROFESSOR  J.  J/EGER. 

One  volume,  ISmo,  with  numerous  Illustrations.    Price  42  cents. 

"  The  distinguished  ability  of  the  author  of  this  work,  both  while  engaged  during  nearly  ten 
years  as  Professor  of  Botany,  Zoology,  and  Modern  Languages,  in  Princeton  College,  N.  J.,  and 
since  as  a  lecturer  in  some  of  the  most  distinguished  literary  institutions,  together  with  the  rare 
advantages  derived  from  his  extensive  travels  in  various  parts  of  the  world,  under  the  patronage 
of  the  Emperor  of  Russia,  affording  superior  facilities  for  the  acquisition  of  knowledge  in  his 
department,  have  most  happily  adapted  Professor  Jaeger  to  the  task  he  has  with  so  much  ability 
performed,  viz. :  that  of  presenting  to  the  public  one  of  the  most  simple,  engaging,  and  useful 
Class-Books  of  Zoology  that  we  have  seen.  It  is  peculiarly  adapted  to  the  purpose  he  had  in 
view,  namely,  of  supplying  a  School  Book  on  this  subject  for  our  Common  Schools  and  Acade- 
mies, which  shall  be  perfectly  comprehensible  to  the  minds  of  beginners.  In  this  respect,  he 
has,  we  think,  most  admirably  succeeded,  and  we  doubt  not  that  this  little  work  will  become  one 
of  the  most  popular  Class  Books  of  Zoology  in  the  country." 

From  Prof.  Tayler  Lewis. 

"  Your  Class-Book  of  Zoology  ought  to  be  introduced  into  all  the  public  and  private  schools 
of  this  city,  and  I  should  rejoice  for  your  own  sake,  and  for  the  sake  of  sound  science,  to  hear  of 
its  obtaining  the  public  patronage  which  it  deserves." 

From  Dr.  T.  Romeyn  Beck,  of  Albany. 

"  The  copy  of  your  book  of  which  you  advised  me  last  week,  reached  me  this  morning.  I 
am  pleased  with  its  contents.  Of  its  accuracy  I  can  have  no  question,  knowing  your  long  and 
ardent  devotion  to  the  study  of  Natural  History.  It  will  be  peculiarly  useful  to  the  young  pupil, 
in  introducing  him  to  a  knowledge  of  our  -native  animals." 

From  Rev.  Dr.  Campbell,  Albany. 

"  Your  '  Class-Book '  reached  me  safely,  and  I  am  delighted  with  it ;  but  what  is  more  to 
the  purpose,  gentlemen  who  know  something  about  Zoology,  are  delighted  with  it,  such  as  Dr. 
Beck  and  Professor  Cook,  of  our  Academy.  I  have  no  doubt  that  we  shall  introduce  it." 


PRIMARY  LESSONS : 

BEING  A  SPELLER  AND  READER,  ON  AN  ORIGINAL  PLAN. 

In  which  one  letter  is  taught  at  a  lesson,  with  its  power ;  an  application  being  immediately 

made,  in  words,  of  each  letter  thus  learned,  and  those  words  being 

directly  arranged  into  reading  lessons. 

BY  ALBERT  D.  WRIGHT, 

AUTHOR  OP  "ANALYTICAL  ORTHOGRAPHY,"  "PHONOLOGICAL  CHART,"  ETC. 
One  neat  volume,  18mo,  containing  144  pages,  and  28  engravings.    Price  12±  cents,  bound. 


EASY  LESSONS  IN  LANDSCAPE, 

FOR  THE  PENCIL. 

BY  F.  N.  OTIS. 

IN  THREE  PARTS,  EACH  CONTAINING  SIXTEEN   LESSONS. 

Price  38  cents  each  part. 

These  Lessons  are  intended  for  the  use  of  schools  and  families,  and  are  so  arranged  that  with 
( the  aid  of  the  accompanying  directions,  teachers  unacquainted  with  drawing  may  introduce  it 
Ipuccessfully  into  their  schools ;  and  those  unable  to  avail  themselves  of  the  advantages  of  a 
Readier,  may  pursue  the  study  of  drawing  without  difficulty. 


HAND  BOOK 


OP 

MEDLEVAL  GEOGRAPHY  AND  HISTORY. 

BY 

WILHELM    PUTZ, 

PRINCIPAL  TUTOR  IN  THE  GYMNASIUM  OF  DUREN. 

Translated  from  the  German  by 

REV,  R,  B,  PAUL,  M,  A,, 

Vicar  of  St.  Augtis  tine's,  Bristol,  and  late  Fellow  of  Exeter  College,  Oxford. 
1  volume,  12mo.    75  eta. 

HEADS    OP    CONTENTS. 

I.  Germany  before  the  Migrations. 
II.  The  Migrations. 

THE   MIDDLE   AGES. 

FIRST  PERiOD.—From  the  Dissolution  of  the  Western  Empire  to  the  Accession  of  the  Carlovin- 
giants  and  Abbasides. 

SECOND  PERIOD.— From  the  Accession  of  the  Carlovingians  and  Abbasides  to  the  first  Crusade. 

THIRD  PERIOD. — Age  of  the  Crusades. 

FOURTH  PERIOD.— From  the  Termination  of  the  Crusades  to  the  Discovery  of  America. 

"  The  characteristics  of  this  volume  are :  precision,  condensation,  and  luminous  arrangement 
It  is  precisely  what  it  pretends  to  be— a  manual,  a  sure  and  conscientious  guide  for  the  student 
through  the  crooks  and  tansies  of  Mediaeval  history.  *  *  All  the  great  principles  of  thii 

extensive  Period  are  carefully  laid  down,  and  the  most  important  facts  skilfully  grouped  around 
them.  There  is  no  period  of  History  for  which  it  is  more  difficult  to  prepare  a  work  like  this, 
and  none  for  which  it  is  so  much  needed.  The  leading  facts  are  well  established,  but  they  are 
scattered  over  an  immense  space ;  the  principles  are  ascertained,  but  their  development  was 
slow,  unequal,  and  interrupted.  There  is  a  general  breaking  up  of  a  great  body,  and  a  parcelling 
of  it  out  among  small  tribes,  concerning  whom  we  have  only  a  few  general  data,  and  are  left  to 
analogy  and  conjecture  for  the  details.  Then  come  successive  attempts  at  organization,  each 
more  or  less  independent,  and  all  very  imperfect.  At  last,  modern  Europe  begins  slowly  to 
emerge  from  the  chaos,  but  still  under  forms  which  the  most  diligent  historian  cannot  always 
comprehend.  To  reduce  such  materials  to  a  clear  and  definite  form  is  a  task  of  no  small  diffi- 
culty, and  in  which  partial  success  deserves  great  praise.  It  is  not  too  much  to  say  that  it  has 
never  been  so  well  done  within  a  compass  so  easily  mastered,  as  in  the  little  volume  which  is 
now  offered  to  the  public."— Extract  from  American  Preface. 

"  This  translation  of  a  foreign  school-book  embraces  a  succinct  and  well  arranged  body  of 
facts  concerning  European  and  Asiatic  history  and  geography  during  the  middle  ages.  It  ia 
furnished  with  printed  questions,  and  it  seems  to  be  well  adapted  to  its  purpose,  in  all  respects. 
The  mediaeval  period  is  one  of  the  most  interesting  in  the  annals  of  the  world,  and  a  knowledge 
of  its  great  men,  and  of  its  progress  in  arts,  arms,  government  and  religion,  is  particularly  im- 
portant, since  this  period  is  the  basis  of  our  own  social  polity." — Commercial  Advertiser. 

I'  This  is  an  immense  amount  of  research  condensed  into  a  moderately  sized  volume,  in  a  way 
which  no  one  has  patience  to  do  but  a  German  scholar.  The  beauty  of  the  work  is  its  luminous 
arrangement.  It  is  a  guide  to  the  student  amidst  the  intricacy  of  Mediaeval  History,  the  most 
difficult  period  of  the  world  to  understand,  when  the  Roman  Empire  was  breakins  up  and  par- 
celling out  into  smaller  kingdoms,  and  every  thing  was  in  a  transition  state.  It  was  a  period  of 
chaos  from  which  modern  Europe  was  at  length  to  arise. 

The  author  has  briefly  taken  up  the  principal  political  and  social  influences  which  weft, 
acting  on  society,  and  shown  their  bearing  from  the  time  previous  to  the  migrations  of  the 
Northern  nations,  down  through  the  middle  ages  to  the  sixteenth  century.  The  notes  on  the 
crusades  are  particularly  valuable,  and  the  range  of  observation  embraces  not  only  Europe  but 
the  East.  To  the  student  it  will  be  a  most  valuable  Hand-book,  savin"  him  a  world  of  trouble 
in  hunting  up  authorities  and  facts."— Rev.  Dr.  Kip,  in  Albany  State  Register. 

4 


THE 

FIRST    HISTORY    OF    ROME, 

WITH  QUESTIONS. 

BY    E.    M.    SEWELL, 

Author  of  Amy  Herbert.  &c.,  &c.    One  volume,  16mo.    50  cts. 
Extract  from  Editor's  Preface. 

"  History  is  the  narrative  of  real  events  in  the  order  and  circumstances  in  which  they  oc- 
curred ;  and  of  all  histories,  that  of  Rome  comprises  a  series  of  events  more  interesting  and  in- 
structive to  youthful  readers  than  any  other  that  has  ever  been  written. 

"  Of  the  manner  in  which  Mrs.  Sewell  has  executed  this  work,  we  can  scarcely  speak  in 
terms  of  approbation  too  strong.  Drawing  her  materials  from  the  best — that  is  to  say,  the  most 
reliable — sources,  she  has  incorporated  them  in  a  narrative  at  once  unostentatious,  perspicuous, 
and  graphic ;  manifestly  aiming  throughout  to  be  cleariy  understood  by  those  for  whom  she 
wrote,  and  to  impress  deeply  and  permanently  on  their  minds  what  she  wrote ;  and  in  both  of 
these  aims  we  think  she  has  been  eminently  successful." 

Norfolk  Academy,  Norfolk,   Va. 

I  must  thank  you  for  a  copy  of  "Miss  Sewell's  Roman  History."  Classical  teachers  have 
long  needed  just  such  a  work :  for  it  is  admitted  by  all  how  essential  to  a  proper  comprehension 
of  the  classics  is  a  knowledge  of  collateral  history.  Yet  most  pupils  are  construing  authors  be- 
fore reaching  an  age  to  put  into  their  hands  the  elaborate  works  we  have  heretofore  had  upon 
Ancient  History.  Miss  Sewell,  while  she  gives  the  most  important  facts,  has  clothed  them  in  a 
style  at  once  pleasing  and  comprehensible  to  the  most  youthful  mind. 

R.  B.  TSCHITDI, 

Prof,  of  Anc't  Languages. 


THE 

MYTHOLOGY  OF  ANCIENT  GREECE  AND  ITALY, 

FOR  THE  USE  OF  SCHOOLS. 

BY    THOMAS    KEIGHTLEY. 

One  vol.  16mo.    42  cts. 

"  This  is  a  volume  well  adapted  to  the  purpose  for  which  it  was  prepared.  It  presents,  in  a 
very  compendious  and  convenient  form,  every  thing  relating  to  the  subject,  of  importance  to  the 
young  student." 

GENERAL 

HISTORY  OF  CIVILIZATION  IN  EUROPE, 

FROM  THE  FALL  OF  THE  ROMAN  EMPIRE  TO  THE  FRENCH  REVOLUTION. 
BY    M.    G  UIZOT. 

Eighth  American,  from  the  second  English  edition,  with  occasional  Notes,  by  C.  S.  HENRY,  D.D. 
One  volume,  12mo.    75  cts. 

"M.  Guizot,  in  his  instructive  lectures,  has  given  us  an  epitome  of  modern  history,  distin- 
guished by  all  the  merit  which,  in  another  department,  renders  Blackstone  a  subject  of  such 
peculiar  and  unbounded  praise.  A  work  closely  condensed,  including  nothing  useless,  omit- 
ting nothing  essential;  written  with  grace,  and  conceived  and  arranged  with  consummatd 
ability."—  Boston  Traveller. 


This    work    is   used    in   Harvard    University,    Union    College,    University   of 
Pennsylvania,  New-  York  University,  $c.  Sfc. 

13 


ENGLISH   SYNONYMES, 

CLASSIFIED  AND  EXPLAINED, 

WITH 

PRACTICAL  EXERCISES. 

SIGNED   FOR   SCHOOLS   AND   PRIVATE   TUITION. 
BY    G.   F.   GRAHAM, 

Author  of  '  English,  or  the  An  of  Composition,'  dec. 
WITH   AN   INTRODUCTION  AND   ILLUSTRATIVE   AUTHORITIES, 

BY    HENRY    REED,    LL.D.. 

Prof,  of  English  Literature  in  the  University  of  Perm. 

One  neat  Vol.  12mo.  $1. 


I.  Generic  and  Specific  Synonymes.  n.  Active 
ad  Passive  Synonymes.  III.  Synpnymes  of  Intensity.  IV.  Positive 
ad  Negative  Synonymes.  V.  Miscellaneous  Synonymes.  Index  to 
pnonymes.  General  Index. 

Extract  from  American  Introduction. 

This  treatise  is  republished  and  edited  with  the  hope  that  it  will  be  found  useful  as  a  text- 
:  in  the  study  of  our  own  language.  As  a  subject  of  instruction,  the  study  of  the  English 
ue  does  not  receive  that  amount  of  systematic  attention  which  is  due  to  it,  whether  it  be 
t>ined  or  no  with  the  study  of  the  Greek  and  Latin.  In  the  usual  courses  of  education,  it  has 
trger  scope  than  the  study  of  some  rhetorical  principles  and  practice,  and  of  grammatical 
j,  which,  for  the  most  part,  are  not  adequate  to  the  composite  character  and  varied  idiom  of 
lish  speech.  This  is  far  from  being  enough  to  give  the  needful  knowledge  of  what  is  the 
s  language,  both  of  our  English  literature  and  of  the  multiform  intercourse—  oral  and  writ- 
-of  our  daily  lives.  The  language  deserves  better  care  and  more  sedulous  culture  ;  it  needs 
h  more  to  preserve  its  purity,  and  to  guide  the  progress  of  its  life.  The  young,  instead  of 
ne  only  such  familiarity  with  their  native  speech  as  practice  without  method  or  theory  gives, 
ild  be  so  taught  and  trained  as  to  acquire  a  habit  of  using  words  —  whether  with  the  voice  or 
>en  —  fitly  and  truly,  intelligently  ana  conscientiously." 

For  such  training,  this  book,  it  is  believed,  will  prove  serviceable.  The  '  Practical  Excr- 
.-.'  attached  to  the  explanations  of  the  words,  are  conveniently  prepared  for  the  routine  of 
uction.  The  value  of  a  course  of  this  kind,  regularly  and  carefully  completed,  will  be  more 
the  amount  of  information  gained  respecting  the  words  that  are  explained.  It  will  tend  to 
luce  a  thoughtful  and  accurate  use  of  language,  and  thus  may  be  acquired,  almost  uncon- 
i-l  y.  that  which  is  not  only  a  critical  but  a  moral  habit  of  mind—  the  habit  of  giving  utter- 
1  to  truth  in  simple,  clear  and  precise  terms—  of  telling  one's  thoughts  and  feelings  in  words 
express  nothing  more  and  nothing  less.  It  is  thus  that  we  may  learn  how  to  escape  the 
i  of  vagueness,  obscurity  and  perplexity  —  the  manifold  mischiefs  of  words  used  thought- 
y  and  at  random,  or  words  usea  in  ignorance  and  confusion. 

In  preparing  this  edition,  it  seemed  to  me  that  the  value  and  literary  interest  of  the  book 
tit  be  increased  by  the  introduction  of  a  series  of  illustrative  authorities.  It  is  in  the  addi- 
of  these  authorities,  contained  within  brackets  under  each  title,  and  also  of  a  general  index 
icilitate  reference,  that  this  edition  differs  from  the  original  edition,  which  in  other  respects 
cactly  reprinted.  I  have  confined  my  choice  of  authorities  to  poetical  quotations,  chiefly  be- 
le  it  19  in  poetry  that  language  is  found  in  its  highest  purity  and  perfection.  The  selections 
3  been  made  from  three  of  the  English  poets  —  each  a  great  authority,  and  each  belonging  to 
(Ferent  period,  so  that  in  this  way  some  historical  illustration  of  the  language  is  given  at 
name  time.  The  quotations  from  Shakspeare  (bom  A.  D.  1564,  died  1616)  may  be  considered 
llustnuing  the  use  of  the  words  at  the  close  of  the  16th  and  beginning  of  the  17th  century; 
e  from  Milton  (born  1608,  died  1674)  the  succeeding  half  century,  or  middle  of  the  17th 
ury  ;  and  those  from  Wordsworth  (bom  1770)  the  contemporary  use  in  the  19th  century. 

14 


A  MAJN  UAL 

OP 

GRECIAN  AND  ROMAN  ANTIQUITIES. 

BY  DR.  E.   F.  BOJESEN, 

Professor  of  the  Greek  Language  and  Literature  in  the  University  of  Soro. 
Translated  from  the  German. 

EDITED,   WITH  NOTES   AND  A   COMPLETE   SERIES  OF  QUESTIONS,  BY  THB 

REV.  THOMAS  K.  ARNOLD,  M.  A. 
REVISED  WITH  ADDITIONS  AND  CORRECTIONS. 

One  neat  volume,  12mo.    Price  SI. 

The  present  Manual  of  Greek  and  Roman  Antiquities  is  far  superior  to  any  thing  on  tl 
same  topics  as  yet  offered  to  the  American  public.  A  principal  Review  of  Germany  says  :• 
"Small  ao  he  compass  of  it  is,  we  may  confidently  affirm  that  it  is  a  great  improvement  on  a 
preceding  woru8  of  the  kind.  We  no  longer  meet  with  the  wretched  old  method,  in  which  su 
jects  essentially  distinct  are  herded  together,  and  connected  subjects  disconnected,  but  have 
simple,  systematic  arrangement,  by  which  the  reader  easily  receives  a  clear  representation 
Roman  life.  We  Monger  stumble  against  countless  errors  in  detail,  which  though  long  a; 
assailed  and  axtirp^ied  by  Niebuhr  and  others,  have  found  their  last  place  of  refuge  in  our  M 
nuals.  The  recent  investigations  of  philologists  and  jurists  have  been  extensively,  but  careful 
and  circumspectly  used.  The  conciseness  and  precision  which  the  author  has  every  whe 
prescribed  to  himself,  prevents  the  superficial  observer  from  perceiving  the  essential  stiperiori 
of  the  book  to  its  predecessors,  but  whoever  subjects  it  to  a  careful  examination  will  discov 
this  on  every  page." 

The  Editor  says :— "  I  fully  believe  that  the  pupil  will  receive  from  these  little  works 
correct  and  tolerably  complete  picture  of  Grecian  and  Roman  life;  what  I  may  call  the  POI 
TICAL  portions— the  account  ofthe  national  constitutions  and  their  effects— appear  to  me  to  1 
of  great  value ;  and  the  very  moderate  extent  of  each  volume  admits  of  its  being  thorough 
mastered— of  its  being  GOT  UP  and  RETAINED." 

"  A  work  long  needed  in  our  schools  and  colleges.  The  manuala~bf  Rennet,  Adam,  Potte 
and  Robinson,  with  the  more  recent  and  valuable  translation  of  Eschenburg,  were  entirely  tc 
voluminous.  Here  is  neither  too  much,  nor  too  little.  The  arrangement  is  admirable — evei 
subject  is  treated  of  in  its  proper  place.  We  have  the  general  Geography,  a  succinct  historic 
view  of  the  general  subject ;  the  chirography,  history,  laws,  manners,  customs,  and  religion 
each  State,  as  well  pthe  points  of  union  for  all,  beautifully  arranged.  We  regard  the  work  •< 
the  very  best  adjurf  to  classical  study  for  youth  that  we  have  seen,  and  sincerely  hope  th 
eachers  may  be  bri  6ht  to  regard  it  in  the  same  light.  The  whole  is  copiously  digested  in 
appropriate  questions." — S.  Lit.  Gazette. 

From  Professor  Lincoln,  of  Brown  University. 

"  I  found  on  my  table  after  a  short  absence  from  home,  your  edition  of  Bojesen's  Greek  at 
Roman  Antiquities.  Pray  accept  my  acknowledgments  for  it.  I  am  agreeably  surprised 
find  on  examining  it,  that  within  so  very  narrow  a  compass  for  so  comprehensive  a  subject,  tl 
book  contains  so  much  valuable  matter ;  and,  indeed,  so  far  as  I  see,  omits  noticing  no  topics  e 
sential.  It  will  be  a  very  useful  book  in  Schools  and  Colleges,  and  it  is  far  superior  to  any  thir 
that  I  know  of  the  same  kind.  Besides  being  cheap  and  accessible  to  all  students,  it  has  tl 
great  merit  of  discussing  its  topics  in  a  consecutive  and  connected  manner." 

Extract  of  a  letter  from  Professor  Tyler,  of  Amherst  College. 

"I  have  never  found  time  till  lately  to  look  over  Bojesen's  Antiquities,  of  which  you  wei 
kind  enough  to  send  me  a  copy.  I  think  it  an  excellent  book ;  learned,  accurate,  concise,  ar 
perspicuous ;  well  adapted  lor  use  in  the  Academy  or  the  College,  and  comprehending  in 
«>nall  compass,  more  that  is  valuable  on  the  subject  than  many  extended  treatises." 

3 


fnglistj. 


THE    SHAKSPEARIAN    READER; 

&  COLLECTION  OF  THE  MOST  APPROVED  PLAYS  OF 

SH  AKSPE  ARE. 

Carefully  Revised,  with  Introductory  and  Explanatory  Notes,  and  a  Memoir 

I  of  the  Author.     Prepared  expressly  for  the  use  of  Classes, 

and  the  Family  Reading  Circle. 
BY  JOHN  W.  S.  HOWS, 
Professor  of  Elocution  in  Columbia  College. 
' 


The  MAN,  whom  Nature's  self  hath  made 

To  mock  herself,  and  TRUTH  tc  imitate.— 

One  Volume,  12mo,  $1  25. 


At  a  period  when  the  fame  of  Shakspeare  is  "  striding  the  world  like  &  colossus,"  and  edi 
M  of  his  works  are  multiplied  with  a  profusion  that  testifies  the  desire  awakened  in  all  elapses 
society  to  read  and  study  his  imperishable  compositions,— there  needs,  perhaps,  but  little 


apology  for  the  following  selection  of  his  works,  prepared  expressly  to  render  them  unexcep- 
tionable for  the  use  of  Schools,  and  acceptable  for  Family  reading.  Apart  from  the  fact,  that 
Shakspeare  is  the  "  well-spring  "  from  which  may  be  traced  the  origin  of  the  purest  poetry  in 
our  language, — a  long  course  of  professional  experience  has  satisfied  me  that  a  necessity  exists 
for  the  addition  of  a  work  like  the  present,  to  our  stock  of  Educational  Literature.  His  writings 
are  peculiarly  adapted  for  the  purposes  of  Elocutionary  exercise,  when  the  system  of  instruction 
pursued  by  the  Teacher  is  based  upon  the  true  principle  of  the  art,  viz. — a  careful  analysis  of 
the  structure  and  meaning  of  language,  rather  than  a  servile  adherence  to  the  arbitrary  and  me- 
chanical rules  of  Elocution. 

To  impress  upon  the  mind  of  the  pupil  that  words  are  the  exposition  of  thought,  8nd  that  in 
reading,  or  speaking,  every  shade  of  thought  and  feeling  has  its  appropriate  shade  of  modulated 
tone,  ought  to  be  the  especial  aim  of  every  Teacher ;  and  an  author  like  Shakspeare,  whose 
every  line  embodies  a  volume  of  meaning,  should  surely  form  one  of  our  Elocutionary  Text 
Books.  *  *  *  Still,  in  preparing  a  selection  of  his  works  for  the  express  purpose  contem- 
plated in  my  design,  I  nave  not  hesitated  to  exercise  a  severe  revision  of  his  language,  beyond 
that  adopted  in  any  similar  undertaking— "  Bowdler's  Family  Shakspeare  "  not  even  excepted  ;— 
and  simply,  because  I  practically  know  the  impossibility  of  introducing  Shakspeare  as  a  Claw 
Book,  or  as  a  satisfactory  Reading  Book  for  Families  without  this  precautionary  revision.— 
Extract  from  the  Preface. 


Bistnriral 

(NEARLY  READY.) 

MANUAL  OF  THE  GEOGRAPHY  AND  HISTORY 

OF   THE 

MIDDLE     AGES. 

translated  from  the  French  of  M .  DES  MICHELS,  Rector  of  the  College  of  Rouen, 
with  Additions  and  Corrections. 

BY  G.  W.  GREENE, 

Professor  of  Modern  Languages  in  Brown  University. 

Accompanied  with  Numerous  Engravings  and  Maps.     One  Volume,  I2mo. 
TO  BE  FOLLOWED  BY 

A  Manual  of  Modern  History r,  down  to  the  French  Revolution. 
A  Manual  of  Ancient  History. 
A  History  of  Rome. 

*.*  Great  pains  will  be  taken  to  adapt  these  books  to  the  practical  purpose*  of  the  G'lusy 
Poom,  and  for  the  guidance  of  private  students. 

10 


COURSE  OF  MATHEMATICAL  WORKS, 

BY  GEORGE  R.  PERKINS,  A.M., 

Professor  of  Mathematics  and  Principal  of  the  State  Normal  SchooL 

I.    PRIMARY  ARITHMETIC.    Price  21  cts. 

A  want,  with  young  pupils,  of  rapidity  and  accuracy  in  performing  operations  upon  written 
numbers;  an  imperfect  knowledge  of  Numeration  :  inadequate  conceptions  of  the  nature  and 
relations  of  Fractions,  and  a  lack  of  familiarity  with  the  principles  of  Decimals,  have  induced 
the  author  to  prepare  the  PRIMARY  ARITHMETIC. 

The  first  part  is  devoted  to  MENTAL  EXERCISES,  and  the  second  to  Exercises  on  the  Slate 
and  Blackboard. 

While  the  minds  of  young  pupils  are  disciplined  by  mental  exercises  (if  not  wearisomely 
prolonged),  they  fail,  in  general,  in  trusting  to  "head-work"  for  their  calculations;  and  in  re- 
sorting to  written  operations  to  solve  their  difficulties,  are  often  slow  and  inaccurate  from  a  want 
of  early  familiarity  with  such  processes :  these  considerations  have  induced  the  Author  to  devote 
part  of  his  book  io  primary  written  exercises. 

It  has  been  received  with  more  popularity  than  any  Arithmetic  heretofore  issued. 

II.     ELEMENTARY  ARITHMETIC.    Price  42  cts. 


Has  recently  been  carefully  revised  and  enlarged.  It  will  be  found  concise,  yet  lucid.  It  reaches 
the  radical  relations  of  numbers,  and  presents  fundamental  principles  in  analysis  and  examples. 
It  leaves  nothing  obscure,  yet  it  does  not  embarrass  by  multiplied  processes,  nor  enfeeble  by 
minute  details. 

In  this  work  all  of  the  examples  or  problems  are  strictly  practical,  made  up  as  they  are  in  a 
great  measure  of  important  statistics  and  valuable  fac;s  in  history  and  philosophy,  which  are 
thus  unconsciously  learned  in  acquiring  a  knowledge  of  the  Arithmetic. 

Fractions  are  placed  immediately  after  Division  ;  Federal  Money  is  treated  as  and  with  De- 
cimal Fractions;  Proportion  is  placed  before  Fellowship,  Alligation,  and  such  rules  as  require 
its  application  in  their  solution.  Every  rule  is  marked  with  verity  and  simplicity.  The  an- 
swers to  all  of  the  examples  are  given. 

The  work  will  be  found  -to  be  an  improvement  on  most,  if  not  all,  previous  elementary 
Arithmetics  in  the  treatment  of  Fractions,  Denominate  Numbers,  Rule  of  Three,  Interest,  Equa- 
tion of  Payments,  Extraction  of  Roots,  and  many  other  subjects. 

Wherever  this  work  is  presented,  the  publishers  have  heard  but  one  opinion  in  regard  to  its 
merits,  and  that  most  favorable. 

III.    HIGHER  ARITHMETIC.    Price  84  cts. 

The  present  edition  has  been  revised,  many  subjects  rewritten,  and  much  new  matter  added  ; 
and  contains  an  APPENDIX  of  about  60  pages,  in  which  the  philosophy  of  the  more  difficult 
operations  and  interesting  properties  of  numbers  are  fully  discussed.  The  work  is  what  its  name 
purports,  a  Higher  Arithmetic,  and  will  be  found  to  contain  many  entirely  new  principles  which 
have  never  before  appeared  in  any  Arithmetic.  It  has  received  the  strongest  recommendations 
from  hundreds  of  the  best  teachers  the  country  affords. 

IV.    ELEMENTS  OF  ALGEBRA.    Price  84  cts, 

This  work  is  an  introduction  to  the  Author's  "  Treatise  on  Algebra,"  and  is  designed  espe- 
cially for  the  use  of  Common  Schools,  and  universally  pronounced  "  admirably  adapted  to  the 
purpose." 

V.    TREATISE  ON  ALGEBRA.     Price  SI  50. 

This  work  contains  the  higher  parts  of  Algebra  usually  taught  in  Colleges ;  a  new  method 
ef  cubic  and  higher  equations,  as  well  as  the  THEOREM  OF  STURM,  by  which  we  may  at  once 
determine  the  number  of  real  roots  of  any  Algebraic  Equation,  with  much  more  ease  than  by 
previously  discovered  method. 

In  the  present  revised  edition,  one  entire  chapter  on  the  subject  of  CONTINUED  FRACTIONS 
has  been  added. 

VI.    ELEMENTS  OF  GEOMETRY,  WITH  PRACTICAL  APPLICATIONS.    $1. 

The  author  has  added  throughout  the  entire  Work,  PRACTICAL  APPLICATIONS,  which,  in  the 
estimation  of  Teachers,  is  an  important  consideration. 

An  eminent  Professor  of  Mathematics,  in  speaking  of  this  work,  says :  "  We  have  adopted 
it,  because  it  follows  more  closely  the  best  model  of  pure  geometrical  reasoning,  which  ever  has 
been,  and  perhaps  ever  will  be  exhibited;  and  because  the  Author  has  condensed  some  of  the 
important  principles  of  the  great  master  of  Geometricians,  and  more  especially  has  shown  that 
his  theorems  are  not  mere  theory,  by  many  practical  applications :  a  quality  in  a  text-book  9* 
this  science  no  less  uncommon  than  it  is  important." 

6 


unit  latin. 


ARNOLD'S    CLASSICAL   SERIES 

L 

A  FIRST  AND  SECOND  LATIN  BOOK 

AND  PRACTICAL  GRAMMAR.     By  THOMAS  K.  ARNOLD,  A.  M.    Revised  and  ca 
Corrected,  by  J.  A.  Spencer,  A.  M.    One  vol.  12mo.,  75  cts. 

n. 
LATIN  PROSE  COMPOSITION : 

A  Practical  Introduction  to  Latin  Prose  Composition.    By  THOMAS  K.  ARNOLD,  A. 
Revised  and  Corrected  by  J.  A.  Spencer,  A.  M.    12mo.,  ftl. 

m. 
FIRST  GREEK  BOOK; 

With  Easy  Exercises  and  Vocabulary.    By  THOMAS  K.  ARNOLD,  A.  M.    Revised  ai 
reeled  by  J.  A.  Spencer,  A.  M.    12mo.,  63  cts. 

IV. 

GREEK  PROSE  COMPOSITION: 

A  Practical  Introduction  to  Greek  Prose  Composition.    By  THOMAS  K.  ARNOLD,  1 
Revised  ami  Corrected  by  J.  A.  Spencer,  A.  M.    One  vol.  L2mo.,  76  eta. 

V. 

GREEK  READING  BOOK, 

For  the  Use  of  Schools;  containing  the  substance  of  the  Practical  Introduction  to  Gree 

*truing,  and  a  1  realise  on  the  Greek  Particles,  by  the  Rev.  THOMAS  K.  ARNOLD, 

A.  M.,  and  also  a  Copious  Selection  from  Greek  Authors,  with  English 

Notes,  Critical  and  Explanatory,  and  a  Lexicon,  by 

J.  A.  Spencer,  A.  M.    lino.,  fl  50 

VL 

CORNELIUS  NEPOS; 

With  Practical  Questions  and  Answers,  and  an  Imitative  Exercise  on  each  Chapte 

THOMAS  K.  ARNOLD,  A.  M.    Revised,  with  Additional  Notes,  by  Prof.  Johnson, 

Professor  of  the  Latin  Language  in  the  University  of  the  City  of 

New- York.     12mo.    A  new,  enlarged  edition,  with 

Lexicon,  Index,  dec.,  81. 

"  ARNOLD'S  GREEK  AND  LATIN  SERIES.— The  publication  of  this  valuable  collec 
classical  school  books  may  be  regarded  as  the  presage  of  better  things  in  respect  to  the  r 
teaching  and  acquiring  languages.  Heretofore  boys  have  been  condemned  to  the  drudi 
going  over  Latin  and  Greek  Grammar  without  the  remotest  conception  of  the  value  01 
they  were  learning,  and  every  day  becoming  more  and  more  disgusted  with  the  dry  a 
meaning  task ;  but  now,  by  Mr.  Arnold's  admirable  method— substantially  the  same  with 
Ollendorff— the  moment  they  take  up  the  studv  of  Latin  or  Greek,  they  begin  to  learn  sen 
t3  acquire  ideas,  to  see  how  the  Romans  and  Greeks  expressed  themselves,  how  (heir  n 
expression  differed  from  ours,  and  by  degrees  they  lay  up  a  stock  of  knowledge  which  is 
astonishing  to  those  who  have  dragged  on  month  alter  month  in  the  old-fashioned,  d: 
tedious  way  of  learning  languages. 

"  Mr.  Arnold,  in  fact,  has  had  the  good  sense  to  adopt  the  system  of  nature.  A  child 
his  own  language  by  imitating  what  he  hears,  and  constantly  repeating  it  till  it  is  fasu 
the  memory ;  in  the  same  way  Mr.  A.  puts  the  pupil  immediately  to  work  at  Exercises  ii 
and  Greek,  involving  the  elementary  principles  of  the  language — words  are  supplied — thi 
of  putting  them  together  is  told  the  pupil— he  is  shown  how  the  ancients  expressed  their 
and  then,  oy  repeating  these  things  again  and  again — iterum  iterumque — the  docile  pu 
'hem  indelibly  impressed  upon  his  memory  and  rooted  in  his  understanding. 

"  The  American  Editor  is  a  thorough  classical  scholar,  and  has  been  a  practical  teac 
years  in  this  city.  He  has  devoted  the  utmost  care  to  a  complete  revision  of  Mr.  Arnold's 
has  corrected  several  errors  of  inadvertence  or  otherwise,  has  rearranged  and  improved  i 
matters  in  the  early  volumes  of  the  series,  and  has  attended  most  diligently  to  the  accurate 
mg  and  mechanical  execution  of  the  whole.  We  anticipate  most  confidently  the  speedy  & 
of  these  works  in  our  schools  and  colleges." 

V  Arnold's  Scries  of  Classical  Works  has  attained  a  circulation  almost  unparalleled, 
Intro*} uced  into  nearly  all  the  Colleges  and  leading  Educational  Institutions  in  the  United 

30 


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